History of Sardinia

The documented history of Sardinia begins in antiquity, in Sardinia but found extensive traces of older cultures.

3.1 The Phoenician- Punic phase
3.2 The Romans and their successors

Prehistory

Fauna in the Paleolithic

The water level of the Mediterranean fluctuated widely since the Miocene, so that the insularity of Sardinia was temporarily canceled and influences of the mainland are noticeable. Most recently, he was about 11,000 BC 100 m below the present level. Characteristic of Inselfaunen types are poverty and the lack of large carnivores. The results in unchallenged large mammals a development for slowness and dwarfing. Inselfaunen learn hardly change, as long as the balance is not disturbed. Sardinia older fauna was replaced by a new one in the Middle Pleistocene ( 900,000 years ago). But the younger shows the typical island style poverty. In mammals, there are only

Megaceros cazioti ( a deer ),
Cynotherium sardus (a small dog),
Some small rodents like the Prolagus sardus.

The Prolagus sardus, an extinct rabbit large rodents, looked like a tailless rat. According to a report from 1774 can be seen that he survived on the island Tavolara until the 18th century.

However, the only large mammal was in contrast to the dwarfed deer, elephants and hippos on the deserted until the Neolithic islands of Crete and Cyprus a normal size. In order to investigate this phenomenon began in 1982, the excavations in the Grotta Corbeddu at Oliena. The excavations revealed three layers of deposits:

Bottom layer: bones of extinct deer Megaceros cazioti, including a well-preserved head antler velvet ( C14 Date: 11610 ± 140 BC). The deer skulls were missing the lower jaw which lay elsewhere. In the presence of people who are involved with hunting in representation of predatory mammals and were opposed to an insular dwarfing, interpret machining marks on the bones.
Middle layer: Charcoal ( radiocarbon date: 7130 ± 380 BC ), bone of Prolagus sardus with fire and Kauspuren that indicate human impact.
Upper layer: ash and charcoal from hearths ( radiocarbon Therefore: 4280 ± 180 BC) mixed with the remains of marine and land snails, crustaceans, fish, domestic animals, wild and Prolagus sardus, further tools of obsidian and Neolithic potsherds ( Bono Ighinu - ceramic and ceramic - Cardium )

The colonization of Sardinia thus dates back to the Paleolithic era. In the year 1979 150.000 -year-old human remains were found. 2011 was found in Marina di Arbus bone Mesolithic inhabitants of the island dating from about 9000 BC.

From the Neolithic to the Iron Age

The prehistoric Sardinians used obsidian, a volcanic rock that has been recovered at the extinct volcano Monte Arci and used for simple tools. This obsidian came also to Corsica, Tuscany, Emilia, and Liguria and southern France.

From the Neolithic to, the BC used in Sardinia around 6000 with the immigration of members of cardial or Impressokultur, until the Roman occupation 238 BC characterize, among others, the cultures of Su- Carroppu and Filiestru that Bono Ighinu - culture that Ozieri culture, the cultures of Abealzu - Filigosa, or the bronze Age Monte Claro culture Bonnyrigg culture and especially the Nuraghen the image of the island. The Neolithic period brings agriculture and livestock on the island. Documents are mortars and hand mills, cereal grains and bones of domestic animals. Cult and grave caves ( Grotta Pirosu ), as well as the oven tombs of the Sinis ( Cuccuru S'Arriu ), and the Domus de Janas (houses of the fairies ) were scratched into rock formations.

Around 2000 BC was the next immigration. The Bell Beaker people change the architecture on the island. From about 1600 BC reign the nuragic. Today there are over 3,000 of yore about 7,000 to 10,000 Nuraghe tower-like, after which the culture is named. In addition, as evidence of previous cultures dolmens and galleries such as Corte Noa, giants' tombs, standing stones, Statuenmenhire, stone circles ( Ortakis ) and holy wells, of which there are about three dozen. Works are the stone cists of Li Muri, the Nuraghentempel of Malchittu, the megalithic gallery grave round Masone Perdu at Laconi and the figures from Monte Prama.

Contacts to the eastern Mediterranean

In 1979 it was discovered in Sardinia for the first time Mycenaean pottery. During the 1980s, the knowledge of contacts between Sardinia, Mycenaean Greece and the islands in the eastern Mediterranean spread. The excavations at Nuraghe Antigori increased the interest of the research on the connection of Sardinia with the Aegean during the Bronze Age.

The Nuraghen received a new significance in the cultural dynamics of the 2nd millennium BC The discovery well stratified Aegean material in Sardinia refined the chronology of Nuraghen. The Aegean archeology opened up a window for investigating the activities of the Mycenaean civilization in the Western Mediterranean area. The Mycenaean goods also aroused new interest in the Aegean- Cypriot oxhide ingots, which were known from various places of Sardinia previously. In the follow-up analyzes of ceramics and copper ingots were made.

The topics also touch on questions to colonize or Vorkolonisierung that are in context with the exchange of objects or the exploitation of natural resources of the island. Long before the Phoenician, there was a period Mycenaean and Cypriot and Minoan trade in the Mediterranean, the nuragical culture and perhaps other Western Mediterranean cultures reached (Corsica, Malta, Sicily). Although the Mycenaean origin of the materials based older cultural theoretical models ( diffusionism ), who have seen in the last century the construction of the Nuraghe because of their architecture ( Tholos ) under Aegean influence. Recent studies have shown, however, that cultural forms can not be understood in terms of the "Ex Oriente Lux" in Bronze Age Sardinia. In particular, the sculptures from the Monte Prama precede the Aegean development of sculpture.

Some researchers suggest that the Schardana, a well-known from Egyptian sources " Sea People " have coming from the eastern Mediterranean, settled here, or originally from Sardinia and after the Sea Peoples riots (around 1200 BC) in the Lebanese or North - Canaanite room settled. Evidence of this immigration fehlem. About the Schardana ( Šrdn in Egyptian notation that expresses no vowels ), little is known, except that they are known before the Sea Peoples attacks as Egyptian auxiliary force long, inter alia, on the Egyptian side took part under Ramses II at the Battle of Kadesh. Before the Schardana were mentioned in the Amarna letters during the 18th Dynasty (about the middle of the 14th century BC In a letter of the King of Byblos to Pharaoh be Šardanu ( Schardana ) as bodyguards mentioned). The older hypotheses emerged after linguistic studies, after which the city of Sardis in Lydia was their starting point from which they would have reached the Tyrrhenian Sea; after they had split in Sardinians and the Etruscans. More likely, however, that a very long undisturbed indigenous development through Bonnyrigg culture led with their protonuraghi to Nuraghen. Equating the Schardana with an early population of Sardinia is in modern research continues to be very controversial.

Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs

The Phoenician- Punic phase

The Phoenician- Punic period in Sardinia began in the 9th century BC The outgoing of Tyre Phoenician phase lasted about 300 years, until around 550 BC The Punic subsequent phase ended after also about 300 years in the 3rd century BC.

Since the 14th century BC Sardinia was visited by sailors from the eastern Mediterranean. Mycenaeans and Cypriots, Minoans also believed previously, drove by this time trade with the island. Also, the Etruscan and Phoenician trade was unwound from the 7th century in Sardinia, since the Etruscans did not allow branches in their area.

In the footsteps of the Levantine traders the Phoenicians, who were particularly interested in the ore deposits of the Iglesiente occurred. However, they founded not only commercial establishments in places like Karali ( Roman Carales; Today Cagliari), and Othoca (the oldest ), Nora, Sulki ( Roman Sulcis ) Su Fraigu ( Punic name unknown) and Tharros but also colonies. Whether the Nuraghe culture of a little later made land acquisition resisted, is controversial, as was already the culture in its final phase. An inscription on the stele of Nora from the 9th century, however, speaks of fighting. There is also evidence the cremation of Monte Sirai, without that you could determine the cause. This happened about that time, as the Carthaginians took control over the colonies.

Middle of the 6th century BC the Carthaginians had brought the south and west of Sardinia under control and prevented the attempts of a Greek settlement in Corsica ( 540 BC at the Battle of Alalia ). Then they began to reshape their part of the island to the granary. Pseudo- Aristotle and other sources report of large-scale deforestation. At the same time it came to Cicero ( Pro Scauro ) for the settlement of Punic- Libyan settlers who were brought as agricultural laborers on the island. Sardinia was also used to recruit troops. So took Sardinians are already participating in the lost battle of Hamilcar at Himera in Sicily around 480 BC.

The occupied regions of Sardinia received along the present state road SS131 a possibly provided with milestones road network. However, the main connections passed over the sea along the coasts, where bases were established. Some place names date back to the Punic period, such as Sirai and Sirri in Carbonia (from Punic SR = rock ), Magomadas in Bosa (of MQMHDSH = new spot). Siddi in Marmillan and Tani at Iglesias are obviously after the deities Sid and Tanit named places. The complete development of the fertile areas showed in the municipality of Sanluri ( Campidano ) made analysis. Within a circle of six kilometers across a dozen Punic hamlet were counted.

Punic and Sardinian association in occupied territory from the 3rd century BC to a culture. The religious life reflects the assimilation reflected most clearly. The Punic version of the fertility cult spread ( is in the Nuraghe Genna Maria and Lugherras ). On the other hand Ipogeo di San Salvatore and the cult of the " hunting of God" Sid Babay Addir in the temple of Antas that nuragical deities went up in the Sardinian- Punic gods and their sanctuaries persisted in modified form.

The triangle Ibiza, Corsica (including Sardinia) and Sicily presented now known to represent the overseas continuation of the Carthaginian mother country, while the continental Spain was militarily, administratively, ethnic and cultural ties with far less North Africa. The Punic cities of Sardinia were governed as a single, following the example of Carthage. They had a public meeting under the chairmanship of two suffetes that were just for one named after them each year in office. Against this background it is understandable that the military takeover of the island primarily represents BC by the Romans in the year 238 a political date. More recently, the archeology has shown that Sardinia long after Scipio had destroyed in 146 BC, Carthage, was marked by the Punic culture.

The ancient writers were aware of the partition of the island in local and Punic areas. In the mountain people, they differed among other Balari and Iliensi in Barbagie and Corsi in Gallura. These they took under names such as fur Arden ( the Sardi Pelliti of Livy ) together. The Punic areas they indicated as their habitat, the Carthaginians and Sardinians. During the First Punic War, Rome had experienced the strategic importance of Sardinia. After futile attempts to bring the island under their power, Rome had BC recognize the sovereign rights of Carthage on Sardinia in the peace treaty of 241.

Uprisings in North Africa, which resulted in mutinied also stationed in Sardinia troops and inflicting terrible massacre of the population, meant that the Romans BC gained dominion over Sardinia in the year 238.

The Romans and their successors

Until the First Punic War, the Punic Carthage residents nominally masters of the island were, even though they never were advancing into the interior, the ( from 238 BC) was still far to the Roman period largely autonomous. After the Roman occupation of the octogenarian was followed by the Vandals from 455 AD The Byzantine or Eastern Roman occupation began then 534, when the imperial general Belisarius conquered the islands in the western Mediterranean. The island impoverished materially and culturally. Nevertheless, the Sardinian folklore took Byzantine influences on how the S'Ardia, an equestrian festival in honor of the Emperor Constantine, shows in Sedilo. In short, the Ostrogoths appeared on the island, conquered 552 under Totila Cagliari. The Lombards from 568 tried several times, but to conquer the island without success. 599, Pope Gregory the Great, the numerous nations of Sardinia force by force to convert to Christianity.

With the conquest of Sulcis in the year 704, a more than two- hundred -year period came, when the Arabs repeatedly raided the coasts of the island. Much of the coastal population fled into the interior of the island. The trade fell sharply, the residents operated inside the island subsistence and every city, every village tried to be self-sufficient. In the year 753 an Arab army occupied the south of the island. In the year 815, the island Ludwig asked the Pious ( 778-840 ) in vain for help. The Byzantine rule ended officially at 832 with the secession of the Byzantine governor.

The now isolated island was shared with local feudal lords ( " Judges " ) from the 9th century in four Giudicati ( Giudicati ) Arborea, Cagliari, Gallura and Torres. The Arab fleets dominated the coasts. A permanent Arab conquest was to 1014/15 prevented as Mujahedeen of Dénia with the help of 120 galleys conquered large parts of the coastal areas. The Italian coastal cities were under military threat by the Arab base of operations in Sardinia. Through the mediation of Pope Benedict VIII in 1016 beat the fleets of the maritime powers of Genoa and Pisa, the Arabs and displaced Mujahid back from the island. Pisa was officially Sardinia as a papal fief, Genoa dominated the north ( see also Islam in Italy).

Pisan, Swabians and Spaniards

The Staufer and King of Sicily, Frederick II (1198-1250), appointed his illegitimate son Enzio 1239 King of Sardinia ( 1239-1249, † 1272 ), where the status of the island originates as a kingdom until the time of the Kingdom Italy remained in 1861. Sardinia fell later, as well as Sicily, first the Kingdom of Aragon (1323-1409) to which renewed the Sardinian kingdom status, and belonged since the early 16th century in personal union with the Kingdom of Spain: the giudicato of Arborea fell apart last.

The indigenous population of the city of Alghero ( S'Alighera Sardinian, Catalan L' Alguer ) was expelled and replaced by Catalan settlers; their descendants still speak Catalan.

Austrian, Piedmontese and Italian

After the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg Sardinia passed after the War of Spanish Succession in 1714 to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty, however, was already in 1720 by Austria - ceded to the ruling house of Savoy, which acquired in 1714 with the possession of Sicily a royal title - in exchange for Sicily and had the same set up now on the possession of Sardinia. The newly created Kingdom of Sardinia with its capital in Turin and its provinces of Savoy and Piedmont had its geographic focus, however, on the Italian mainland. Only during the French occupation of the northern Italian kingdom part between 1799/1800 and 1814 ruled the Sardinian king Charles Emmanuel IV ( 1796-1802 ) and his brother Victor Emmanuel I. ( 1802-1821 ) - like little later expelled from Naples Bourbon king of Sicily, Ferdinand IV - under the protection of the British fleet directly from their island of Sardinia, which was otherwise rather neglected. As part of the Italian unification of rulers of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) in the year 1861 King of Italy.

Autonomy

As part of this agreement and the new rear shifting the focus of power in Italy to Turin, Florence and Rome Sardinia was finally pushed to the provincial border. Not until 1946 was the island autonomy, but until 1982, there have been anecdotal, some armed rebellions, which were often associated with abductions.

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