Flora of Malta

The flora and vegetation of the Maltese Islands is characterized by its typical Central Mediterranean character. She is especially close to the flora and vegetation of only about 100 kilometers away in Sicily, but is also influenced by the North African fauna.

With around 1,100 higher plant species, the Maltese islands, given their small size, low habitat diversity and the enormous human impact for a Mediterranean flora on a remarkable species richness. A large proportion of the species is regarded as not indigenous.

No area of the archipelago is remained free of human influence, to its transformation began in the Neolithic period to the beginning of deforestation. Today the islands are almost treeless, characteristic are especially typical Mediterranean vegetation types such as steppe, maquis or garrigue particularly common.

The study of Maltese flora began in the 17th century, but until the 20th century, a continuous floristic work became apparent. The extraordinarily high, even increased by the increasing human impact tourism raises questions increasingly find possible solutions to the resulting conflicts between man and nature.

5.1 Main ecosystems 5.1.1 Woodlands
5.1.2 maquis
5.1.3 Garrigue
5.1.4 steppes

5.2.1 seagrass beds
5.2.2 coastal societies
5.2.3 rock formations
5.2.4 freshwater formations

6.1 Land Use
6.2 degradation
6.3 Agriculture
6.4 invasion of species

Natural space

Geographical Location

The Maltese Islands are situated in the center of the east-west axis of the Mediterranean Sea, about 100 kilometers south of Sicily, 350 km north of Tripoli and about 300 kilometers east of Tunis. They extend over a length of 45 kilometers from northwest to southeast.

The archipelago consists of three inhabited islands, namely Malta ( about 246 sq km), Gozo ( about 67 km ² ), and Comino ( 3 km ²), and the uninhabited islet of Cominotto, Filfla with Filfoletta, Saint Paul 's Islands and Fungus Rock with a total of less than 1 km ². The highest points of the three main islands are cliffs with heights of 253 (Malta ), 135 (Gozo ) and 75 ( Comino ) meters in height. The profile of the terrain is relatively uniform, mountains or deep valleys missing. While there are some small springs, but larger natural water bodies such as lakes or rivers are missing. Due to the small size of the islands, no point in the interior is removed more than 6.5 kilometers from the coast, which is why a certain amount of salt tolerance is a necessary feature of all plant species on the islands.

Geology

The islands form the so -called Malta Plateau, which is on the African continental plate and as well as the neighboring Sicily geologically part of Africa. From the end of the Tertiary on until about 12,000 years existed between southern Sicily and North Africa always a land bridge that divided the early Mediterranean into two basins and is still preserved as a submarine seamounts. During the ice ages dropped and the water level rose and flooded the Mediterranean repeats this land bridge. At times of low water levels offered this as a way to immigration and North African plant species to Malta.

The oldest rock layer is derived from the Oligocene and consists of coral limestone, it follow from the Miocene deposits of Globigerinenkalk and blue clay, and another layer of coral. Geologically, the islands are so very young. In places, also occur Pleistocene deposits (old soil formations, river gravels, conglomerates, breccias and dunes of the coasts as well as fillings of gaps and cracks ) in appearance.

Due to the calcareous soil, all plants of the Maltese flora are approximately kalkliebend or at least kalktolerant.

Geomorphology and soils

As a result of geological raw material most Maltese soils are highly calcareous and slightly alkaline with a pH usually above 8.0. Three major soil types can be distinguished: in addition to relatively young, carbonate raw soils mostly in the southwest of Malta and the center of Gozo with a calcium carbonate content of 90 % and a very low organic matter content of 1 to 1.5 % is found in the center of Malta and the Middle and western Gozo older Xerorendzina floors ( coined by semi -arid drought rendzina ) with a calcium carbonate content between 55 and 80 and an average humus content of 2-3 %. The oldest soils, however, the fossil terra rossa and terra fusca and their intermediate forms with organic matter content of 4.5% and calcium carbonate contents of only 2 to 15%, which dominate the coast of Gozo and the North, South and South West of Malta.

Characteristic topographical elements of the islands are Rdum and wied. The former are approximately vertical, continuously eroding cliffs, at the foot of the rubble of erosion collects. Due to their inaccessibility and the retreat spaces formed by rock walls and debris that provide Rdum important retreats well as endemic species of flora and fauna represents the Widien (plural of Neuwied, and content closely related to the Arabic word wadi ) are deeply incised watercourses that of vegetation are mostly overgrown and even lead in autumn and winter water. They were cut under wetter climatic conditions, such as during the Pleistocene by watercourses in the surface of the islands or are caused by tectonic events. A few Widien accommodate own sources and have so year-round water. Therefore, this Widien are among the most biologically diverse locations on the islands.

Another important feature of the island, which distinguishes them from many other, almost always extremely dry islands of the central Mediterranean Sea, the numerous sources of fresh water resulting from rain water harvesting aquifers ( aquifers) are dine in sealed by a layer of clay limestone. Without them, a dense human occupation of the islands would have been impossible up to the present extent.

Climate

The Maltese Islands have a typical Mediterranean climate: the summers are hot and dry, winters cool and moist. Larger amounts of precipitation, there is only during the period between October and March from May to early September, however, the rainfall is so low that at this time the plant growth practically ceases. The relative humidity is quite high with 65 to 80 %. The average annual rainfall is around 550 mm, but over the years very variable. Unlike the temperatures - typical of an island - over the year are quite resistant. The number of sunshine hours is high even in winter. On the islands, it is quite windy, wind is rare. Also rare is prolonged rain. Only in very few cases are documented frost and snow, which are not only extremely rare phenomena, but if so, then occur very briefly.

The climatic conditions with the long dry period in summer enforce that perennial, succulent plants do not need to insert a rest period over the summer, so pull geophytes, for example, in their outlasting one.

Flore history

Little is known about the flora of the Maltese archipelago in the Pleistocene, unspecified dated finds exist from Genuine laurel and Aleppo pine. Detected from the flora of the early Holocene are Judas tree, hawthorn species, ash species as well as members of the genera phillyrea and possibly the trees. Interglacial pollen findings are characterized by a flora similar to that of the montane regions of Sicily, dominated by grasses, hazel, pine, alder, hornbeam, ferns and sour grass plants. At the same time, the vegetation of larger wetlands can be demonstrated among other things by pollen of Myriophyllum, Buttercup, two teeth and peat mosses.

Biodiversity

The flora of the Maltese Islands is ( according to the published volumes 1 to 4 of Med - Checklist as well as the published entries in the Euro Med Plant Base and the Flora of the Maltese Islands ) from about 1100 species of vascular plants. Given the small surface, the lack of diversity of habitats and the massive population pressure is a remarkable wealth of plant species for a Mediterranean island (see comparison table). Of these, 1100 are about 950 (according to other surveys 800 ) native or alteingebürgert ( Archaeophytes ), while about 75 species are well established neophytes and about as many are more or less unstable. With 10 to 20 % of the species, the Maltese flora on a relatively large proportion of non-native flora. Around 350 species are considered extinct, endangered or rare.

Within the present knowledge are approximately 13 species and 4 subspecies ( their taxonomic status, however, is not assured in all cases) endemic to the Maltese archipelago. The epithet melitensis from the Latin word for Malta often refers to such endemics. Some of these species are so-called Paläoendemiten, ie relics of a preglacial Mediterranean flora who migrated during the Messinian salinity crisis.

Foxtail plants ( Amaranthaceae ): Atriplex lanfrancoi
Salsola melitensis

Matthiola incana subsp. rupestris

Anthyllis hermanniae subsp. melitensis

Euphorbia melitensis

Limonium melitense
Limonium zeraphae

Daisy family ( Asteraceae): Anthemis urvilleana
Cheirolophus crassifolius, national plant of Malta
Helichrysum melitense
Hyoseris frutescens
Jasonia bocconei

Zannichellia melitensis

Allium lojaconoi
Allium melitense

Anacamptis pyramidalis var urvilleana
Ophrys melitensis

So are endemic only just over 1% of the Maltese flowering plants species. In comparison with the other major Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Crete and the Balearic Islands, whose endemism four to ten times as high, which is a very low value. When the cause is true that Malta, only very low relief differences and thus a lower level of habitat diversity has a much smaller area. Other explanations are that the archipelago of 12,000 years is isolated from the mainland since only a relatively short time and has been heavily modified by human influence.

Despite its name is not endemic is the most famous Maltese plant, the Maltese sponge ( cynomorium coccineum ), the ( English for " Mushroom Rock " ) occurs in Malta only on named after him Fungus Rock ago Gozo, moreover, but also in the rest of the Mediterranean, can be found in Macaronesia and in the salt deserts of Central Asia.

As most under-researched so far applies the cryptogamic flora. Among the known over 120 mosses of the islands is also the only known from Malta liverwort Riccia melitensis. In addition, about 150 algae, as well as many large mushrooms and lichens are around 300 detected. Despite the lack of forests also about 70 slime mold species are endemic.

Flore relations

The Maltese Flora is a typical Mediterranean flora, most of their plants can also be found in other regions of the Mediterranean area. Their composition is similar through close relationships strong geobotany the flora and vegetation of Sicily, the relationship is particularly striking for Malta north peninsula opposite Ragusa. The Maltese flora consists of the Sicilian but from by a greater proportion of North African plant species.

In the Maltese Islands, some semi - endemic species are native ( ie species that are widespread not only in the Maltese archipelago, but only slightly beyond), which clearly illustrate the closer family relationships. So the group of siculo - Maltese endemics that are found except in Malta still in Sicily and in some cases also in Calabria (eg Desmazeria pignattii, Oncostema sicula and the crocus are Romulea melitensis, which until recently was as endemic to Malta, but also the pelago - Maltese endemics, which shares with the neighboring Malta Pelagie islands (eg Linaria pseudolaxiflora, Elatine gussonei and Daucus lopadusanus ) the connections to North Africa, in turn, however, document the -. highly endangered - stocks of Sandarakbaums ( Tetraclinis articulata ), the otherwise found almost exclusively in the Maghreb, as well as Periploca angustifolia. too endemic species Darniella melitensis and Jasonia bocconei own their respective closest relatives in North Africa. worth mentioning is the squill kind Urginea pancration, mainly in southern Italy, Sicily, Malta and the the Great Syrtis, and found in the Balearic Islands.

Large parts of the Maltese flora reflected in the flora of other Mediterranean regions. Around 95 % of the flora are also found in Sicily, 90 % on the Spanish coast, between 80 and 90 % on the coasts of southern France, West Italy and in Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands, nearly 80 % in Southeast Greece and 70 % self- still on Crete. The pan- Mediterranean character of the Maltese flora was and is probably exacerbated by human activities such as trade.

Vegetation

Main ecosystems

Forest areas

It is believed that prior to human settlement the island - typical of the central Mediterranean Sea - to a large extent with sclerophyllous forests of holm oak (Quercus ilex) and Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis ) and an undergrowth covered from small shrubs and trees had. With the colonization of the island began a gradual deforestation, as forests for construction and agricultural land were cleared and the wood was used as a timber. Today, these forests have completely disappeared, their only remnants are around 25 oaks with an estimated age between 600 and 900 years, spread over four sites of the island of Malta.

These fragments of the original forest cover not form a functioning ecosystems more, nor planted by humans wooded grounds (parks, plantations, etc.). Only the returning to human forest plantations Buskett can claim to represent a semi-natural and self-sustaining forest ecosystem. Buskett is dominated by Aleppo pine, an additional need are olive trees ( Olea europaea), stone oaks and carob trees ( Ceratonia siliqua ) and an undergrowth of turpentine and pistachio ( Pistacia terebinthus ), Holly buckthorn ( Rhamnus alaternus ) and interventions leagues hawthorns (Crataegus monogyna). As the only functioning forest area of the island is Buskett despite its " semi - natural " an important refuge for plants and animals is that their stocks are therefore at risk on the island dependent on forests and. For some slightly older reforestation (eg Bajda Ridge, Wardija Ridge ) applies similar, albeit a lesser extent. Were heavily criticized by conservationists efforts of the government, reforestation with non- native species such as To operate eucalyptus or acacia.

Maquis

A typical result of Entwaldungsprozessen in the Mediterranean with subsequent erosion is the 1 to 3 feet high growing maquis. Your Maltese is the expression of an evergreen and impoverished vegetation, composed mainly of trees and shrubs such as carob, olive tree, mastic tree ( Pistacia lentiscus ), Rhamnus lycioides subsp. oleoides, Teucrium flavum, flexuous honeysuckle ( Lonicera implexa ), Rough sarsaparilla ( Smilax aspera ), truths acanthus (Acanthus mollis ) and Big Klippenziest ( Prasium majus) composed. Here you can distinguish two forms, one being a semi - natural maquis in inaccessible locations such as steep slopes and the Rdum and an artificial maquis around planted by people trees, mostly olive and carob trees.

Garrigue

The Garrigues, so open Mediterranean shrub communities, with their numerous sub-forms, the most common natural ecosystem of Malta. Your shrub, up to one meter high vegetation is scattered the most strongly scented shrubs and xerophytes. Make a typical ecosystem rocky soils dar. Some of the stocks caused by degradation of forest and maquis, followed by severe erosion which has exposed the underlying bedrock, to a large extent. Characteristic species are among many geophytes and therophytes capitate thyme ( Thymbra capitata ), Vielblütige heath (Erica multiflora ), Teucrium fruticans and the endemic Euphorbia melitensis and Anthyllis hermanniae subsp. melitensis. Garrigues found mainly in western Malta and Gozo in the hill country.

Quilting

The very rich in forms steppes - dry grasslands in turn are the result of degradation, maquis and garrigue from here. Main factors of degradation are grazing goats, the plants also thorny, can eat down to the surface, another trigger is for example caused by short, heavy rains, soil erosion. Steppe formations can also develop on fallow farmland.

Steppe vegetation dominated by grasses, umbelliferous plants, thistles and geophytes. In the climax of the steppe vegetation then find, for example Hyparrhenia hirta or Andropogon distachyos, on loamy slopes (which has a significantly different type of steppe vegetation present ) but also the esparto ( Lygeum spartum ). Characteristic plants of other steppe vegetation types are grasses such as Brachypodium retusum Phalaris coerulescens or ( = Ph. truncata ). Are the steppes more degraded, can be found as a characteristic annual grasses Stipa capensis and Aegilops geniculata and numerous thistles (eg Carlina involucrata, Notobasis syriaca, Galactites tomentosus ) and geophytes (eg Branched asphodel ( Asphodelus ramosus ) (= A. aestivus auct. )) and the squill ( Urginea pancration ).

Special sites

Seagrass beds

The marine flora of Malta is characterized by the so-called littoral seagrass beds, take the fight to 40 meters depth and are the basis of one of the most important ecosystems of the Mediterranean. Here dominates the Neptune grass ( Posidonia oceanica ), an endemic of the Mediterranean, which is known for the little felted friend clear sea balls that arise from dead matter. In shallow coastal sections 5-10 meters depth there is often Cymodocea nodosa. Be found in two places beyond the entrained from the Red Sea seagrass Halophila stipulacea.

Coastal societies

The wetlands of the coastal zone with its high salt content form in the rainy season, with progression of the dry season the water evaporates and becomes more brackish until the marshes dry falls definitively until the next rainy season. These extreme conditions lead to such a highly specialized species community that approximate given the circumstances of his own, each site has its own spectrum of species. At the same time, these habitats form a transition zone between the plant communities of the sea, fresh water and the country. A few and far insufficiently explored locations in this case have floras that are equally composed of freshwater and salt water species.

Among the most threatened ecosystems include the local almost all strongly drawn by tourism in affected societies dunes on sandy beaches. Dominant are here Elytrigia juncea and Sporobolus pungens ( = Sp arenarius ). The few years ago also frequent holdings of the Mediterranean subspecies of the ordinary beach grass ( Ammophila arenaria subsp. Arundinacea ) are now extinct.

Some halophytes colonizing on gently sloping cliffs, the salty soils that have accumulated in the recesses of the rocky subsoil. They are the only locations of two endemics, namely zeraphae of Limonium and Anthemis urvilleana, next can be found here also Allium lojaconoi, although also endemic, but is also found on other sites in Malta yet. The semi - endemics Desmazeria pignattii and Senecio pygmaeus leucanthemifolius var ( = S. pygmaeus ) and on the Maltese archipelago occurring only on Comino Hymenolobus procumbens subsp. revelierei (including subsp. sommieri ) are limited to these locations.

Rock formations

The plant formations rocky locations colonize cliffs and high walls, even the Rdum can thereby be understood as a domestic location cliffs. The cliff coasts in the south, west and southwest of Malta, and to the south and southwest of Gozo are vertical, 70 to 130 meters high cliffs, in rising up to 253 meters area of Dingli Cliffs, however, they appear as a slope, which partly terraced and used as arable land will.

This plant formation can be understood as a special form of the garrigue. The degree of inaccessibility of these dominated by shrubs locations makes them important refugia of many animal and plant species, including a majority of the Maltese endemics as Cheirolophus crassifolius, Atriplex lanfrancoi, Salsola melitensis, Hyoseris frutescens, Limonium melitense, Jasonia bocconei, Helichrysum melitense and Semi- endemic species such as Antirrhinum siculum, Hypericum aegypticum subsp. webbii ( = Triadenia aegyptica ) Crucianella maritima ( = C. rupestris ) and Periploca angustifolia.

Freshwater formations

The sinks and pits in the coral limestone karst country are during the rainy season reservoirs for short-lived and usually in late spring, but no later than the summer -tide pools dar. Due to the rarity and ephemeral nature of these locations are also found there plants rarely, including Ranunculus peltatus ( = R. saniculifolius ) Callitriche truncata, Elatine gussonei, Damasonium bourgaei, Crassula vaillantii and stonewort Tolypella glomerata. Few of these waters are permanent, either because of their size or additional water inflows (eg artificial Chadwick Lakes ). They are the only still waters of the archipelago and is therefore of great importance for plant species that need year-round existing waters.

The majority of the Maltese freshwater plants living in the water-filled Widien during the rainy season, dominant species include giant reed ( Arundo donax ), Cyperus longus, and Typha domingensis Scirpoides holoschoenus. When submerged species of the genus Chara is Chara and Haarblättriger find water crowfoot (Ranunculus trichophyllus ) and the endemic Zannichellia melitensis. The Widien are among the most species-rich habitats in the archipelago.

The few source waters have their own flora, whose basis is flowing fresh water. Since the local species are mostly dependent on these rare habitats, they are extremely rare. In some watercourses there are still remnants of deciduous riparian forests, including silver poplars (Populus alba), Salix pedicellata, Ulmus canescens and occasionally Real laurel (Laurus nobilis).

Formations disturbed sites

Some due to the huge population density and considerable land consumption now in widespread plant communities are those disturbed sites, which are dominated by numerous, mostly non- native plants. Subtypes exist on abandoned fields, along roadsides and in disturbed coastal sites.

Human impact

The presence of humans on the Maltese Islands was momentous for the environment as a whole and the plant world in particular. On initial deforestation overgrazing followed, changing phases of cultivation and fallow favored a massive erosion, numerous new and partially invasive species were introduced. The huge and growing population pressure and space-intensive uses by the tourism industry are foreseeable continue to drive this trend.

In the early 1990s first environmental laws were enacted. The first Maltese nature reserve, the Ghadira Nature Reserve was created in 2001 as a private initiative immediately behind the beach of Mellieha and now serves as a protected area in particular for plants and birds. Here, the first signs showed an increased environmental awareness in Maltese society. Since Malta joined the European Union in 2004 officially areas were reported for nature conservation under the Natura 2000 program for the first time, the investigation in 2008, this forty terrestrial Special Areas of Conservation, which accounted for approximately 13 % of the island area. Whether these developments are sufficient, however, to stop the current development or even reverse the long run is open.

Land use

Malta is today with around 350,000 residents at a population density of 1298 persons per km ² behind Monaco, Singapore and the Vatican City of the most densely populated country in the world (compared to Ruhr 1173 inhabitants per km ²). There are also ( from 1992 stable ) from 1 to 1.2 million tourists annually. Is correspondingly high pressure that the man exercises through the land use on the environment. Around 16 % of the total area of Malta and around 10% of Gozo are built. The road network has a total length of 1500 km at 316 km ² area.

Degradation

The first settlement was dated to the Neolithic period to 5000 to 9000 years BC. The population was apparently isolated in the phase of the first settlement, but developed a high- culture. This first culture disappeared for unknown reasons and the island was repopulated after only a short interruption by about 2500 BC. The incipient at this time and until a few centuries continued deforestation was promoted by the introduction of livestock such as sheep and goats during the ancient times. The present shape of the island as nearly treeless goes all the way back to human influence.

Especially the times numerous existing goats prevented by grazing itself prickly or difficult to digest plants except for " root and branch " regeneration of ecosystems, promoted the increasing degradation of plant communities and caused a depletion of the flora. The dramatic fall in livestock farming in recent decades is therefore considered to be advantageous, many previously overgrazed areas recover now and convert from degradierteren forms such as the steppe back to the garrigue or maquis around.

Due to the already lengthy and very frequent use colonization is that not a place of islands is more purely a natural ecosystem, " even the remotest areas show clear signs of human activity," at best, one can speak of semi - natural landscapes.

Agriculture

Since the 1950s, the Maltese government has promoted a structural change of the islands, in the course of which there was an expansion of tourism as an economic sector. In turn, this was mainly due to agriculture, which had been a cornerstone of the Maltese economy continuously at least since ancient times. Cheating her share of the gross domestic product in 1954 5.6%, it decreased to 1994 to only about 3%. This also land use decreased to agricultural purposes by around 56 % in 1957 to only 38% in 1993.

The now derelict land has been repopulated many wild plants, which - as far as privacy notice - first steppe vegetation and trained over the succession Garrigues and maquis. There were many terraced as on many islands of the Mediterranean, for arable land slopes, the terraces expire on the task, however, the land is affected by soil erosion.

Invasion of species

Since the Maltese islands were at times of great strategic importance, they arrived ships, goods and people from all over the world with them plants. Major routes of introduction are in addition agriculturally cultivated crops imported ornamental plants, seeds from bird food, refugees from the Botanical Gardens and species that migrated through Lessepsscher migration from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean or imported in this way by people (such as Halophila stipulacea ).

Some species are not only national, but are considered to be so-called invasive species with high potential displacement. A particularly problematic three plants are classified in the Maltese Islands. Firstly, the South African native, introduced in the 19th century and from the Argotti Botanical Gardens in Floriana escaped Nodding sorrel ( Oxalis pes - caprae ). He has conquered Malta from the coasts of the entire Mediterranean and the Atlantic through to the UK. As well as this has escaped from the Argotti Botanical Gardens originally from Chile Aster squamatus that up to the present was from the 1930s to become one of the most common weeds of the island. Also is introduced as an ornamental plant in the 19th century miracle tree ( Ricinus communis), which displaces native species, especially in the few wetlands of the islands of importance.

History of Research

The earliest record of the flora of the Maltese Islands - by individual mentions of crop plants by ancient authors such as Diodorus, Cicero and Lucretius - comes from Francesco Abela, who recorded 1647 first wild plants. 1670 was followed by a first list of Giovanni Francesco Bonamico that already leads 243 species. After another individual lists, it would take until the year 1827, to Stefano Zerafa, Chair of Natural History at the University of Malta, in his comprehensive 489 species Florae Melitensis thesaurus the flora of Malta treated more extensively.

After he had already in 1849 published a list of 400 native plants, leaving Giovanni Carlo Grech Delicata 1853 his main work, Flora Melitensis follow, in which he treated 716 flowering plants. His work should be the yardstick to the beginning of the 20th century until Stefano divan and Caruana Gatto, funded by the Italian Government, in 1915 their exhaustive Flora Nova Melitensis published. Shortly thereafter, in 1927, John Borg published on work done since 1896, his Descriptive flora of the Maltese Islands. The work remained largely on the 20th a century and was reprinted again almost 50 years after its first publication in 1976. Similarly continues this, it in many ways updating and in particular to determine key addition, but much more compact, appeared in 1977, the last date monographic work on the topic, A Flora of the Maltese Islands by Sylvia Mary Haslam, Peter D. Sell and Patricia A. Wolseley. The Hans Christian Weber and Bernd Kendzior published in 2006, Flora of the Maltese Islands - A Field Guide, however, is not Flora, but an identification book and thus builds Guido G. Lanfranco's Guide to the Flora of Malta in 1955.

About 1676 already established in Floriana Argotti Botanical Gardens were founded by the Order of Malta as a medicinal herb garden ( Hortus medicus ). In 1855 they were handed over to the university and has since used mainly for research and teaching at the Faculty of Science. Since the beginning of the 21st century, they also house an herbarium.