Quotation mark
Quotation marks are punctuation marks that are at the beginning and end of direct speech, a literal quotation or quoted title or name of a work.
Quotation marks can also be used to words, phrases and parts of a text or word highlight to which you would like to comment about which one wants to make a statement or of how to use them yourself - as ironic or by the backing of another sense - distance want. These usage types are grouped under the collective term " modalizing function" (from " modal" ~ the way significant ).
- 5.1 Germany and Austria
- 5.2 Switzerland, Liechtenstein, France
- 5.3 Examples
- 5.4 quotes third level
- 5.5 In other languages
- 6.1 fonts
- 6.2 browser
- 6.3 word processors
- 6.4 Direct input by keyboard 6.4.1 Windows
- 6.4.2 GNOME
- 6.4.3 X Window System in general
- 6.4.4 Mac OS
- 6.4.5 Neo - keymap
Designation
Quotation marks is the translation of the Latin word signum citationis trade, quote character ' from the printer language and is used for opening as closing character with this function. The text between the quotation marks is quoted ( one meaning of quote ). To distinguish between the beginning and the standing at the end of a quotation quotes, words are usually used as opening or closing. Rarely speaks of quoting and closing, execution or ( even rarer ) quotation marks.
In German, they are colloquially called inverted commas, in which case the opening quotes below, the closing quotation marks are called up. In Northern Germany is colloquially as " Tüddelchen " (probably to the Middle Low German " tud (d) er ' rope for tying a grazing animal, here: " tüdern "or" tethered ", an associated label ) use. The similar - standard German colloquial term " tittle " is nonspecific and may - depending on the context - the " dots ", " negligible trifle " or " serif " mean.
History
The identification of citations is old and can already be detected in literature comments antiquity; so a double hook is found in a Montekassinenser Halbunzialhandschrift the commentary of Pseudo- Ambrose to Paul's letters, written before 570, before each quotation. This custom was probably practiced in the commentary tradition of the philologists of the library of Alexandria, which was founded in the third century before Christ.
In the Aristotle edition of the Milan Renaissance humanist Francesco Filelfo that is 1483 or 1484 appeared literal and analogous quotations with slanted double lines are indicated at the left edge of each line. Until then, direct quotations were highlighted on the authors, or it may not; not literal borrowings are featured at the edge; after the appearance of Filelfos output the quotation marks for direct quotations have prevailed. Whether the humanists with this type of highlighting continued the ancient and medieval use or whether it is an independent development is uncertain.
Quotation marks in German
The use of quotation marks is regulated in particular § 89 and § 94 of the revised official rules and regulations of the German spelling of 2006. With quotes you close something literally re datum a ( § 89). This applies to
With quotes you can highlight words or parts within a text and make it clear in some cases that one takes for their use position or refers to it ( § 94). This applies to
To use the quotation to avoid repeating words see underpass characters.
Quotation marks with other punctuation
Quotation marks in science
In the philology, whose lyrics contain both citations and much to besprechendes object- linguistic material and the optionally added meanings of this material, the use of which would in all these cases lead one and the same quotes to confusion. Therefore, a distinction is made:
- Only quotes from other scientific literature or fiction are set in quotation in single quotation marks in accordance with the regulations of authorities in double quotes.
- Individual words, syntagmas and phrases that are the object of linguistic description and analysis are never in quotes, but are printed in italics. (Example: The word democratorship is a well-known portmanteau word. )
- In particular, foreign-language expressions can follow a meaning indication; This is - without parentheses, commas or other deduction - in single quotes. (Example: The term smog is composed of the words smoke, smoke ' and fog, mist ' together. ) Some German universities use here the simple ( English ) quotation mark ( '...').
In the bibliographic specification of literature, the use of quotation marks and italics is clearly regulated. Usually only the titles of articles in books and magazines are placed in quotation marks, while the titles of independent works are in italics and without quotation marks.
In biology, uses the English quotation marks when cultivated forms and varieties of plants are given. For example, in a cultivated form of Sawara cypress: Chamaecyparis pisifera ' Squarrosa ' (Scheme: Genus Species ' breeding form' / ' variety' ).
Smart quotes
In the typewriter set there for opening and closing quotation marks only one character ( " ), which serves as a surrogate for customs, seconds, or arc seconds at the same time.
If further quotes used within quotation marks, so one usually uses so-called half or single quotation marks ('). When typewriters this character also serves as a surrogate, in this case for the apostrophe, foot and minute characters.
However, smart quotes are preferred, which differ from language to language and partly from country to country. Only in areas where this is not possible, for example, on the typewriter, then the sign is " permitted.
Germany and Austria
In the German font in all countries (except Switzerland and Liechtenstein ) as quotation marks, whether German quotation marks ("..."; hint: 99-66, also called inverted commas ) or the French quotation marks ( "...", guillemets ) with the points used inside. The German quotation marks responsible for the title quotes the fact that its shape resembles the imprint of a crow's foot. The French quotation marks, with the pointed ends to the outside - as is common in the Romance languages - are common in German sentence only in Switzerland and Liechtenstein.
In the official rules and regulations (eg Duden R7 -R12, in the guidelines for typesetting, as in Wahrig spelling dictionary § 89 - § 95) Rules for use are treated, not whether German marks or guillemets have to be used. Both possibilities are of equal. In Duden Volume 9 ( Proper and good German ) German quotes hand and machine print be assigned the other hand, the German document, which are Guillemets here as single quotes ... ' and' ... < equal footing. Benefits of guillemets to the German quotation marks are the distinctiveness against comma, apostrophe character and customs, as well - the text portal Rotkel opinion - the elegant appearance. A disadvantage is the missing key on U.S. standard keyboards.
The single quotes are simple versions of dual German and French: ... ' or> ... <. There are different views on whether quotation marks with another type can be combined by single quotation marks (" ..., ... " ... " " ... > ... < ... "). This is supported by the clearer contrast especially where quotation marks and apostrophes meet ( "' ... '" " ..." " against ," ... ' " " > ... <" ), are opposed to the less uniform typeface. The Duden recommends that you set individual listed from foreign languages words or phrases in German quotes, whole sentences or sections contrast the quotes in the original language. Rotkel other hand, refers to the " mixing German quotes, guillemets or inch mark " generally as " incorrect ".
The above-mentioned quotes for significance information in linguistic texts are always the typographic, half ' quotation marks, according to German typography below and above, according to the English above, regardless of the quotation marks for quotations otherwise used in the text.
In handwritten texts normally be " ... " is used, as well as in newspapers. Guillemets however, outweigh in letterpress printing.
The predominant style in German is also common in some other Germanic and Slavic languages.
Switzerland, Liechtenstein, France
Unlike in Germany and Austria, the French double and single quotation marks ( guillemets ) are in Swiss pleading frequently applied in the style of written French, so with the points outward ( "..." ), but with significantly less white space between characters, and that of them enclosed text. This applies not only for German, but for all languages used in Switzerland. In handwritten texts usually quotes the German ("..." ) are used.
Examples
- Andrea asked me, " Did you Grass ' Tin Drum ' read? " ( In Germany and Austria, German )
- Andrea asked me, " Did you Grass ' read > Tin Drum '" ( Guillemets in Germany and Austria )?
- Andrea asked me: " Did you read Grass's
? " ( Guillemets in Switzerland, no spaces ) - Andrea demanda me: " As- tu lu < Le Tambour > en Grass? » ( Guillemets in France, with intervals )
- Andrea asked me, " Did you read Grass's ' The Tin Drum '? " ( Typewriter set)
Quotes third level
In the rare event that a quotation occurs within a quotation within a quotation, either using the quotes first level ( as traditionally on the typewriter: " ... '... ' ... ' ...' ... ' ) or one resorts to a third kind of quotation marks, as in the following example:
" After a long and detailed analysis of the unlawful actions of Putin [ ... ] Grischkewitsch concludes :" On the basis of the above, I ask the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation [ ... ] an official valuation of the circumstances surrounding the adoption and signing of the Federal Law > For the incorporation of changes and additions to the Federal Law " on general principles of organization of legislative (representative) and executive bodies of state power of subjects of the Russian Federation" < [...] " the reaction of the Court -. . null"
In other languages
In many languages , alphabets and countries, the double quotes are usually used and the half or alternative for specific purposes, for example within a quotation, or for technical terms used in headings with larger font size. However, there are exceptions: In British English often primarily single quotes are used in the U.S. usually double.
Representation on the computer
Fonts
Nowadays, virtually all computer font designed for Latin fonts typographic quotes. Only in very old fonts may still cause problems.
The opening quotation mark in the U.S. pleading and the closing in German are identical (see above). Some fonts contain instead of the inclined curved shapes and linear shapes for the quotes; the top quotes of these writings is not suitable mostly for German (wrong angle). In texts in which the author of the font selection by the reader 's control ( eg e- mail), we therefore used the better guillemets; in texts, to govern the font of the author (texts on paper, to a certain extent also WWW pages ), you should pay attention to the selection of an appropriate font for German.
Browser
The correct display in browsers is dependent not only on browser type and version of the font used, other writings available on the computer and the document encoding.
Since they are included in the most widely used encoding ISO 8859-1, are best supported by the typographically correct the (double) French quotation marks. Meanwhile, however, the German quotation marks are not a problem, provided that the instructions referred to in Webtypographie be followed.
With outdated browsers, there are some problems: Netscape 4 provides, for example, neither the double nor the final half German quotation marks correctly and supersedes the French apostrophes by the greater- and less-than sign.
Word processors
Word processors such as LibreOffice / OpenOffice.org and many more have "intelligent" functions, replace the typewriter character when entering automatically typographical. They are guided by the selected language of the document, wherein the change to French or Swiss character is not always easy to identify. In Word, in contrast to other programs in the selected language " German ( Switzerland ) " still uses the German quotes. The automatism is dependent on proper punctuation, it can lead to problems in distinguishing between half -closing quotation marks and apostrophes.
There are easy on the "Search and Replace" based macros that all representable types of quotes for whole documents or even documents marked parts can be replaced to change even without the language settings for the edited text. This is recommended especially for languages linguistically mixed documents, or if not installed (and therefore not automatically detected).
Word processing programs provide for the setting of all types of quotes. In LaTeX single and double quotation marks in the English source text by simple or double grave accents (opening ) and straight apostrophe character ( see below, closing) set ( ` ... 'or `` ... ''); straight quotation marks (see below) in the source code should not be used since they only supply closing quotation marks in the finished document. For the German form of opening quotes using the additional package babel with the option of German (or ngerman ) and writes " ` for 'and' ' for ". Alternatively they can be entered directly from the keyboard then also, if Unicode is used as the encoding.
Direct input by keyboard
Windows
Under MS Windows Unicode characters can be entered using the key combination Alt
GNOME
GNOME 2.x allows the selection of characters by entering their hexadecimal Unicode ( see next table ) while holding Ctrl Shift followed by u and the hexadecimal code.
X Window System in general
Under X, you can take the program xmodmap the keycodes of the keys with the mnemonic name ( see next table ) to link the keysyms of the characters. When using the Compose key (Comp ), there are the combinations Comp, " [" ] or Comp <" [" ] for the German double quotes, Comp, ' [, ] or Comp < ' [' ] for the simple German quotes, Comp << [« ] or Comp >> [» ] for the double French quotes and Comp. < [ <] Or Comp. > [> ] For the simple French quotes.
In a German keyboard, German quotes can be generated by pressing Alt Gr Y [ »] or Alt Gr X [ " ] by pressing Alt Gr V [" ] or Alt B [" ] and the guillemets. If moreover Shift pressed, it creates a simple version of the characters [, ... ' and' ... ' ] for nested quotes. With the key combination Alt Gr N [ ' ] can also be the English, closing quotation mark, or in combination with the Shift typographic apostrophe [ '] represent.
Mac OS
Among the various operating systems Macintosh computers these and other characters you are usually a means of the keyboard. An overview of the current key assignment offers the Keyboard Viewer application, which can be displayed from Mac OS X 10.3 from the Input menu (System Settings ... → Settings → Input Menu country ). An alternative is to turn off OS X 10.3, the einzublendende also the Keyboard menu character palette that can replace, among other things keystrokes by double clicks. It is operating system wherever possible, "dumb quotes" automatically by smart quotes to replace ( under Language & Text → Text → Intelligent quotes).
German Keyboard: The German double quotes on a German keyboard with ⌥ ^ or ⌥ ⇧ W [ ' ] or ⌥ ⇧ ^ or ⌥ 2 [" ], the simple German with ⌥ S [, ] or ⌥ # [' ] is given by the double French ⌥ Q [« ] or ⌥ ⇧ Q [ ' ] and the simple French with ⌥ ⇧ B [ <] or ⌥ ⇧ N [>].
Swiss keyboard and keyboard layout: The German double quotation marks can be only partially, ie only closing with ⌥ 2 [" ] entered on a Swiss keyboard, the simple German with ⌥ ⇧ G [, ] or ⌥ ! [ '], The double French means ⌥ , [« ] or ⌥ ⇧ , [ ' ], the easy -starting with French ⌥ ⇧ 3 [ <], the closing is not again reachable.
Neo keyboard layout
With the Neo keyboard layout are all smart quotes by Shift (double quote ) / Mod 3 (for single quotes ) 4 (opening [ German ] guillemets ) / 5 ( closing [ German ] guillemets ) / 8 (opening [ German ] quotes) / 9 ( closing German, English simultaneously opening quotes) / generated 0 ( closing english quotes).
Coding
1 German and French forms are with the babel package and its option (s) German available. 2 Mnemonic name of the keysyms of the X Window system for use with xmodmap
Problems and Common Errors
Since the typographically correct quotation marks are not included in ASCII and also vary by country and language, wrong quotation marks are often used. To this confusion also carries the visual similarity to other characters at ( apostrophe, accent and minutes - seconds or characters).
Subsequently, the right quotes and examples of some of their frequent false are listed ( to ) descriptions:
1 The original Unicode names are given on the basis of English usage. This can also contribute to confusion when used in other languages .
Some common fonts, such as Courier, Verdana or Tahoma, put the closing quotation mark is wrong; these writings, therefore, not suitable for the proper representation of German texts.
Quotes as hand signals
Especially in the English-speaking quotes are visualized in an oral presentation with a gesture at the applicable one or both hands and bent index and middle finger twice and stretched upwards again. This called in English air ratio ( " Luftanführungszeichen " ) hands can euphemism, irony or sarcasm to express.
Swell
- German spelling: Rules and word list - Official rules, § § 89-95, online ( PDF file)
- Duden spelling of German Language, Mannheim 1996, Guidelines for spelling R8 -R12 and guidelines for typesetting: quotes
- Wolfgang Brandt / Norbert Nail: quotes. A systematizing attempt their functional use manner. In: Native 86 (1976 ), pp. 407-426.