Southern-Cross-Expedition

The Southern Cross Expedition ( official name British Antarctic Expedition 1898-1900 ) was the first expedition of the so-called Golden Age of Antarctic research under British auspices. It was directed by Norwegian Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink. It was the first expedition wintered at the participants on the Antarctic mainland. Other pioneering achievements were the first time entering the Great Ice Barrier (now known as the Ross Ice Shelf ) and the use of dogs and sledges as means of transport in the Antarctic. The Southern Cross Expedition is generally regarded as a forerunner of the more widely known British Antarctic expeditions under the leadership of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton.

The expedition was financed mainly from the private assets of the British publisher George Newnes ( 1851-1910 ). After the departure from England in August 1898 on the steam-powered sailing vessel Southern Cross, which gave its name to the expedition, defeated the ten-member team to landing Borchgrevink their winter quarters in 1899 at Cape Adare on the northeastern tip of Victoria Land on. From there, an extensive scientific observation program has been performed, although the difficult terrain conditions in the study area prevented extensive exploration marches in the Antarctic inland. In January 1900 the team left Cape Adare to go the route of James Clark Ross sixty years earlier following the Great Ice Barrier. After landing on the ice shelf panel Borchgrevink undertook together with William Colbeck (1871-1930) and Per Savio (1877-1905) on 16 February 1900 sled excursion, in which the three men lined up a new Südrekord at 78 ° 50 ' S.

The reception of the expedition members on their return to England by the Royal Geographical Society was extremely subdued in view of the preparations, which hit the learned society for the upcoming Discovery expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott. In addition Borchgrevinks were questioned leadership qualities and the seemingly insignificant gain in knowledge, the rendered the expedition criticized. Despite his pioneering efforts in the development of strategies for survival and transport in the Antarctic Borchgrevink expedition leader never reached as the prestige and admiration were his followers Scott and Shackleton met with. Only his compatriot and South Pole conqueror Roald Amundsen recognized, has the Southern Cross expedition in overcoming obstacles made ​​vital contributions in Antarctica trips and paved the way for all subsequent expeditions.

• 2.1 drive to Cape Adare
• 2.2 wintering
• 2.3 explore the Ross Sea region

Prehistory

Born in Oslo as the son of a Norwegian father and an English mother in 1864 Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink emigrated in 1888 to Australia, where he first worked as a surveyor and geologist, before he became a school teacher in New South Wales. From 1894 he took part in the led by Henryk Bull Antarctic Expedition ( 1894-1895 ), which had the goal of developing new whaling grounds off the coast of Antarctica. During this expedition Borchgrevink entered on January 24, 1895 supposedly the first man at Cape Adare Antarctic mainland. He came during this trip to the conviction that the region around the Cape is ideal for a future expedition with the aim to explore the interior of the Antarctic continent.

In the firm belief to be able to conduct such a research trip itself, Borchgrevink tried in the next three years in Australia and England for financial support. Despite encouraging comments of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS ) in the Sixth, the International Antarctic Congress he presented his plans in August 1895, he was initially unsuccessful. In reality, the RGS held their own plans for a large- designed Antarctic Expedition, the later discovery expedition back. Their patron and president of the RGS Sir Clements Markham saw in Borchgrevink only one foreign competitors and intruder. Finally, Borchgrevink was the publisher George Newnes persuade ( [= € 1.209 £ 1 ] today approximately £ 3,194,000 ) to assume the entire cost of his project in the amount of £ 40,000. Newnes ' support for Borchgrevink offset Markham and the RGS into a frenzy, as the sum of money would have been enough Newnes tied two conditions to the financing of the expedition "the National Expedition [ he meant the Discovery Expedition ] to stand on its feet. ": The research vessel should sail under the British flag and the whole company are referred to as British Antarctic Expedition. Borchgrevink readily agreed, although only came two members of the entire expedition team from England. These circumstances provoked the anger and contempt for Markham Borchgrevinks research trip. Especially got to feel this is the RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill (1861-1950), the Markham abstrafte for attending the farewell ceremony of the expedition. There, Mill had initiated on their success and called it in his dinner speech as a " disgrace to the human enterprise " that in the case of Antarctica as little research has been done so far and combined this with the hope that " the generosity of Sir George Newnes and the courage of Mr. Borchgrevink be this scourge. "

Objectives of the expedition

Borchgrevinks interests in the conduct of the expedition were mainly scientific and geographical but also economic. So he thought, if only temporarily, to the incorporation of a company to reduce the large guano deposits according to which he was already encountered in the Antarctic expedition. In numerous letters to scientific societies, he lifted the extensive scientific program of the expedition shows including his intention to locate the exact location of the Antarctic magnetic pole. Although his research assistants were quite inexperienced, they covered a wide range of different disciplines. Among them were geographers, Magneto neurologists, biologists, zoologists and animal taxidermy. Borchgrevink was hoping to have appropriate spectacular geographical discoveries alongside academic achievements. Even a possible march to the South Pole, he took into consideration. In unaware of the exact conditions to which the expedition members should encounter in their winter quarters at Cape Adare, he was unaware that the local nature of the terrain encroachment from the outset made ​​it impossible in the interior of the Antarctic continent.

Expedition ship

With the capital provided Borchgrevink bought the 1886 from the Norwegian shipbuilder Colin Archer designed in Arendal whaler Pollux. Archer also had the famous Norwegian expedition ship Fram designed and built with the Fridtjof Nansen in his Arctic expedition 1893-1896 a new northern record (86 ° 13.6 'N ) had set up. The Pollux, the Borchgrevink immediately rechristened in Southern Cross, was a three-masted barque of 570 tons displacement with square sails on fore and main mast and gaff sails on the mizzen mast. The steam engine was set after Borchgrevinks requirements in the Norwegian Fredrikstad repaired. Although Clements Markham publicly considerable doubt as to the seaworthiness of the ship expressed ( likely to bring into disrepute Borchgrevink ), the Southern Cross was equipped with everything that was necessary for a ride in Antarctic waters. Thus, the two-bladed propeller was gehieft on board to prevent damage with the appropriate ice pressure. After the expedition, they shared the fate of many other expedition ship, such as the Nimrod or the Aurora. It was sold to the Newfoundland seal hunting society and sank on 31 March 1914 in a storm off the coast of Newfoundland. The entire 174- member crew was killed.

Expedition team

The ten-member landing team should spend the winter at Cape Adare, Borchgrevink consisted of five scientists, a doctor, a cook and two dog handlers. Among them were seven Norwegians, two British and one Australian.

Among the scientists was located in the Australian physicist and astronomer Louis Bernacchi. This should actually participate already at the Belgica Expedition (1897-1899) under Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery. To this end, it did not come, as the expedition ship on the way to Antarctica as planned Melbourne started off so Bernacchi waited in vain for his collection. Instead, he applied for a trip to London directly with Borchgrevink to participate in the expedition. Bernacchis travelogue under the title To the South Polar Regions from 1901 contained critical remarks on Borchgrevinks leadership qualities, however, left no doubt about the scientific achievements of the expedition. After completion of the Southern Cross expedition Bernacchi returned in 1901 as a physicist on the Discovery Expedition to Antarctica back. Another team member who took part later at the Discovery Expedition ( as captain of the second rescue ship Morning), was the Englishman William Colbeck ( 1871-1930 ). Colbeck was an experienced sailor and served as a lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve ( RNR ).

The chief zoologist of the expedition was the Norwegian Nicolai Hanson of the University of Oslo. He assisted Hugh Blackwell Evans (1874-1975), the son of a vicar from Bristol, who had spent three years on a ranch in Canada and participated in a cruise to the seal hunt on the Kerguelen. The working as a doctor Herluf Klövstad (1868-1900) was previously employed in a madhouse in Bergen. Anton Fougner (1870-1932) was recruited as a research assistant and " maid of all work ". As a chef and carpenter undertook Borchgrevink Kolbein Ellifsen ( 1874-1928 ). The youngest participants of the expedition were the two Sami Ole Must (1878-1934) and Per Savio (1877-1905), who acted as guide dogs.

The ship's crew under the command of Captain Bernard Jensen ( 1853 -? ) Consisted of 19 Norwegian sailors and the Swedish Steward Lars Andersen (1850 -? ) Together. Jensen had a 20- year experience in the navigating in polar waters. Already 1894-1895 he took part in the Antarctic expedition together with Borchgrevink and Henryk Bull.

Expedition

Drive to Cape Adare

The Southern Cross left London on August 22, 1898 in the presence of the then Duke of York, later King George V, the farewell a Union Jack presented the expedition members. On board were in addition to the crew, equipment and supplies also 90 Greenland dogs and Siberian Huskies, which should come first as sled dogs in Antarctica used. After a stopover in Hobart Tasmania on the expedition ship set on 19 December with course Cape Adare in the lake. The southern polar circle was crossed on 23 January 1899. The ship was trapped in pack ice in the meantime, so that Cape Adare was seen only on 16 February and reached the following day. Bernacchi held his impression at the first sight of the Antarctic mainland in his diary: " A landscape so terrible in its sparseness, which can only be experienced at the far end of the globe; truly a land of unsurpassed desolation. "

Discoverer of the Cape was James Clark Ross during his Antarctic voyage ( 1839-1843 ). Underneath the cape is a headland, was landed on the Borchgrevink together with Henryk Bull in 1895. This headland is the site of the largest breeding colony of Adelie penguins on the entire Antarctic continent. Borchgrevink was already at the first landing that "this place offers enough space for permanent accommodation, tents and food. " In addition, the penguins presented a welcome change on the menu and the fat of an additional source of fuel for the period of hibernation dar.

The unloading of the ship began on February 17. First, the Huskies were brought ashore. Entrusted with their care and dog handlers Must Savio were the first people who stayed on the Antarctic mainland. During the following 12 days the other goods were transported on land and two prefabricated huts, the first building erected in the Antarctic. The one served as accommodation for the landing team, in the second supplies and equipment have been deposited. From the slats of the crates some expedition members carpentered a shelter for geomagnetic surveying and kennels to house the Huskies. The winter quarters offered just enough room for ten men. Bernacchi described the hut with a size of " 15 x 15 feet, with ropes anchored in the rocky shore. " Inside, two adjoining rooms were partitioned from one main room. One served as a darkroom, the second was used for taxidermy. The main room lit double glazed side window and another window in the attic. The bunks were erected along the cabin walls. The center of the main room provided space for the stove and the dining table.

On March 2, was the establishment of the base camp, which was named after the mother's maiden name Borchgrevinks Camp Ridley, complete with the hoisting of the Union Jack. That same day, left the Southern Cross Cape Adare at winter in Australia. In the few weeks until the onset of winter first test sleigh rides have been made on the sea ice near the Robertson Bay to survey the coastline to catch various birds and fish for biological collection as well as seals and penguins as food and fuel supply to slaughter.

Wintering

From mid-May 1899, the weather was much worse. Storms and falling temperatures kept the expedition members are increasingly caught in her tight winter quarters. This was reflected in morale. Boredom and increased irritability made ​​themselves widely among the men. In this time of tension the qualities Borchgrevinks were challenged more than ever as a leader of the expedition. Bernacchi, however, writes that Borchgrevink " in many ways ... not a good leader" was. The well-known historian and polar explorer Ranulph Fiennes reported that in such a " state of democratic anarchy " poor hygiene, disorder and listlessness are on the agenda.

Borchgrevink was not a proven scientist and his lack of knowledge about handling instruments and the related inability to perform simple tests, let his reputation among the other members of the expedition are dwindling. However, a scientific work program has been completed and when the weather was, the men procured movement outside the hut. One particular change was in the snowdrifts improvised by Savio at the sauna hut. Entertainment offered evenings with lectures, singing rounds or a photo show. At a near disaster occurred when a burning candle sat in one of the bunks the hut on fire and caused considerable damage. Another time, three men escaped by improper operation of the coal furnace barely slept a deadly smoke inhalation while.

The supply of the team with basic food was very good. Even with coffee, tea, butter, canned fish, cheeses, soups, tripe, plum pudding, potatoes and vegetables was no shortage. However, there were complaints of men with respect to some supplies. Colbeck complained that the " whole canned fruit that was actually scheduled for landing team, [ ... ] either remained on board the Southern Cross or already consumed by the ship's crew was [ is ]. " Even with smoking articles there was scarcity. Although around half a tonne of tobacco had been purchased, the landing team was only a small amount of chewing tobacco available.

During the winter ill Nicolai Hanson probably in moist beriberi, reinforced by an intestinal infection. At this he died on 14 October 1899, as was the first person was buried in Antarctica. His grave was blown into it above the Cape Adare with dynamite into the rock. When Bernacchi found at this event the entry: "There, in the midst of deep silence and peace, nothing to disturb the eternal sleep except the Geschreih of seabirds. " Hanson is survived by his wife and a newborn child who was born shortly after he set off for Expedition had.

With the beginning of the Antarctic spring, the team prepared to meet the demanding trips with the dog sled before in the interior of the Antarctic continent. The path is truncated by them insurmountable mountain ranges in the vicinity of the winter camp. Marches along the coastline have become a dangerous undertaking because of unsafe ice conditions. These circumstances restricted range of motion to explore a much so that finally limited this to the vicinity of Robertson Bay west of Cape Adare. Here, a small island was discovered, which has since borne the name of Duke of York Iceland. Some years later, this discovery of participants in the Discovery expedition was called into question with the mocking Note that this island did not exist. In later years, the existence of the island was unequivocally confirmed and 38 ' S, 170 ° 4' O 71.633333333333170.06666666667 located at 71 °.

Exploring the Ross Sea region

The Southern Cross returned on January 28, 1900 by Australia back to the Cape Adare to accommodate the landing team again. Following the later descriptions of a reconnaissance team of Discovery Expedition of the retreat of Camp Ridley on February 2, 1900 happened apparently disordered and in a big hurry. In Edward Wilson's diary on January 9, 1902 is an entry: " ... all the rubbish lying around, mountains of supply crates, dead birds, seals, dogs, harnesses [ ... ] and heaven knows what else. "

Instead of returning a direct route to Australia, Borchgrevink was the expedition ship take a southerly course in the Ross Sea. First port of call was Possession Iceland (72 ° 0 ' S, 171 ° 10' O 72171.16666666667 ) on which the tin was recovered, the Borchgrevink had there deposited at the first landing in 1895. Then the ship sailed along the coast of Victoria Land along. In this case, other islands were discovered, of which a Borchgrevink, regardless of hostile attitude towards his person, according to Sir Clements Markham named ( Markham Iceland, 74 ° 36 ' S, 164 ° 55' O 74.6164.91666666667 ). After the Southern Cross now recorded an easterly course, she went on the coast of Ross Island along to Cape Crozier at the foot of Mount Terror volcano. There escaped Borchgrevink and Captain Jensen nearly died, were recorded as both a tidal wave that was created by the calving of large ice masses from the edge of the adjacent Ross Ice Shelf.

The route from James Clark Ross sixty years earlier following came the expedition ship along the ice barrier eastward before to find the bay, in the Ross on February 2, 1843 the ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror at 78 ° 10 ' S its highest southern latitude reached. Position determination showed that the ice edge had receded since then about 48 km to the south, bringing the old Südrekord has been exceeded. However, Borchgrevink additionally wanted to explore the surface of the ice shelf plate. Together with Colbeck and Savio he undertook a sled excursion, on the penetrated the three men on February 16, 1900 to a south latitude of 78 ° 50 ' S. At this pioneering quoted Roald Amundsen: " By entering the Ice Barrier Borchgrevink has paved the way to the south and thereby cleared the biggest obstacles for future expeditions out of the way. " Ten years later, Amundsen erected near this position, the Camp Framheim that for a base camp his successful attack on the geographic South Pole served. On the way to the north, the Southern Cross stopover made ​​at the Franklin Island near the coast of Victoria Land. There geomagnetic surveys showed that the Antarctic magnetic pole is located in the interior of Victoria Land, but further to the northwest than previously assumed. Then the expedition ship went on home course. The southern polar circle was exceeded on 28 February 1900 on 1 April a telegram about probably the most safe return of the expedition was deposed in the New Zealand port of Bluff.

Aftermath

The Southern Cross returned in June 1900 returned to England, where the expedition members a cool reception was prepared. Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society were still upset about Borchgrevinks successful effort to provide financial support of his expedition by George Newnes. Furthermore, almost all of the attention was given in the scientific community of the upcoming Discovery Expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott. Defiantly said Borchgrevink his expedition as a great success. He wrote: "Antarctica could lead to a further Klondyke be given the occurrence of fish, seals and mineral ores [ sic]. " He had proved that a winter in Antarctica is possible and also made ​​a number of geographical discoveries. These discoveries include the islands of the Robertson Bay and the Ross Sea and the first landings on the Ross Island, Franklin Island, the Coulman Island and the Ross Ice Shelf. The exploration of the coast of Victoria Land resulted in " significant [n ] geographical [n ] Discovery [ s ] [ ...] of the Southern Cross Fjord and the excellent campsite at the foot of Mount Melbourne. " The greatest achievement of the expedition, according Borchgrevink was the measurement of the east-west extension of the Ross Ice Shelf and the journey to the " southern [n ] point [ of the earth ], the man has ever achieved. "

Borchgrevink published the experiences and discoveries of his expedition in 1901 in the book First on the Antarctic Continent. The English-language edition, revised in many passages by Newnes ' editors, was criticized for its flashy style and her swaggering tone. Borchgrevink was held that he was " not known for his restraint even for his tact. " His lecture tour of England and Scotland was largely ignored.

Hugh Robert Mill noted that the scientific findings of the expedition were not as extensive as hoped, partly because much of the work Nicolai Hanson disappeared inexplicably. Mill therefore designated the journey mutatis mutandis as " interesting scientific spin. " Meteorological and geomagnetic surveys in Victoria Land were performed over a full year, and taking the place of the Antarctic south magnetic pole located ( although not explored ). In addition, samples were collected to fauna, flora and geology of the Antarctic mainland. Borchgrevink claimed for himself the discovery of new species of insects and such, the shallow-water fauna, which demonstrated the biological convergence in the development of lower species in the Arctic and Antarctic.

The geographical societies both in England and beyond had problems with the recognition of Borchgrevinks achievements. The Royal Geographical Society appointed him despite all reservations to Fellow. Other awards followed, finally, from Norway, Denmark and the United States. Clements Markham maintained his negative attitude to Borchgrevink and described him as cunning and unprincipled. Roald Amundsen was the only well-known personality who was full of praise for him. Scott's biographer David Crane theorizes that one would have judged differently about Borchgrevink, if he had been an officer in the Royal Navy, "but a Norwegian sailor and school has simply not taken seriously. " Late recognition by the Royal Geographical Society learned Borchgrevink until 1930, when she handed him the golden patronage medal with the words that " the pioneering work of the Southern Cross expedition at that time wronged " and that the difficulties had to be overcome for these benefits were underestimated.

Cited literature

• Amundsen, Roald: To the South Pole Vol I. John Murray, London 1912 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ).
• Bernacchi, Louis: To the South Polar regions. Hurst & Blackett, London 1901 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ).
• Bertrand, Kenneth J. and Alberts, Fred G.: Geographic Names of Antartica, U.S. Govt. Print. Off. , Washington, D.C. 1956 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ).
• Borchgrevink, Carsten E.: First on the Antarctic continent. George Newnes, London 1901 ( restricted access via Google Books ).
• Borchgrevink, Carsten E.: sydpolen Nærmest aaret 1900 Nordisk Forlag, Oslo 1903 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ). .
• Crane, David: Scott of the Antarctic. Harper Collins, London 2005, ISBN 0,007,150,687th
• Fiennes, Ranulph: Captain Scott. Hodder & Stoughton, London 2003, ISBN 0-340-82697-5.
• Huxley, Elspeth: Scott of the Antarctic. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1977 ISBN 0-297-77433-6.
• Jones, Max: The Last Great Quest. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-19-280483-9.
• Markham, Clements: The Lands of Silence. University Press, Cambridge 1921 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ).
• Mill, Hugh Robert: The siege of the South pole, Alston Rivers, London 1905 ( digitized version on the Internet Archive ). .
• Preston, Diana: A First Rate Tragedy. Constable & Co., London 1997, ISBN 0094795304 (restricted access via Google Books ).
• Wilson, Edward A.: Diary of the Discovery Expedition. Blandford Press, London 1973, ISBN 0-7137-0431-4.