Omotic languages

• Südomotisch
• Mao
• Dizi Sheko
• Gonga ( Kefoid )
• Gimojan:
• Yem
• Bench ( Gimira )
• Chara
• Ometo
• Neighboring languages
• Nilo-Saharan
• Afro-Asiatic

The omotischen languages ​​are genetically related set of languages ​​that are in the north-eastern Africa, almost exclusively in the south-western Ethiopia, spoken. Most scientists arrange the Omotische as a separate major branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. It includes nearly 30 languages ​​with about 4 million speakers. The name is derived from the Omo River, which flows through parts of the omotischsprachigen areas.

• 4.1 General
• 4.2 Phonology 4.2.1 Segmental phonemes
• 4.2.2 Suprasegmental properties

• 4.3.1 Nominal Morphology
• 4.3.2 pronouns
• 4.3.3 Verbal morphology 4.3.3.1 TAM markers
• 4.3.3.2 Persons marker
• 4.3.3.3 interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - Negative
• 4.3.3.4 sequence of Konjugationsmorpheme
• 4.3.3.5 Other forms of finite
• 4.3.3.6 Verbalderivation

• 6.1 Omotisch as a family
• 6.2 Selection of descriptions of individual languages

Sociolinguistic situation

Most omotischen languages ​​are spoken in limited areas, with native speakers according to their own view as well as ethnological criteria form a closed ethnic group. The languages ​​usually have several regional varieties, but they are mutually intelligible; in some cases, a variety of native speakers as being particularly " good" and " pure" felt. The soziolektale structure of Yem is within the Omotischen an isolated case dar. In some areas form omotische languages ​​regionally restricted a lingua franca, in markets several languages ​​are often used simultaneously, which is why most people speak two or three regional languages ​​in these regions. When teaching, mission and administrative language Amharic is applied, which is nevertheless limited as a lingua franca is applied. No omotische language is used to a greater extent for the publication of printed works, although this is mainly since the 1990s increasingly desired by the population; for the Yem has its own radio program. The attitude towards one's mother tongue is often positive, the receipt is desired. Nevertheless, several omotische languages ​​are threatened with extinction because through marriages between tribes lose less significant languages ​​of speakers.

Research history and status of research

The written documentation and scientific study of languages ​​omotischen began only in the 19th century in the wake of colonialism and European research trips. So Arnauld d' Abbadie 1868 presented the relationship of two Gonga languages ​​fixed; 1888 put Leo Reinisch with his work on the Kaffa the first linguistic description of a language omotischen ago. In the first half of the 20th century, collected mainly Italian scientists like Martino Mario Moreno and Carlo Conti Rossini data to other languages ​​; this was continued in the following decades by other European and, increasingly, Ethiopian scientists. Although the state of research has improved more rapidly in recent decades, but are of many languages ​​, only very short and incomplete descriptions available. In addition, many or all omotischen languages ​​have a very complex morphology, they work only when a larger amount of data is often understood, so many questions have not yet been explained primarily in the area of the nominal inflection and the verbal system.

Classification

Internal classification

The Omotische is divided according to the widely recognized classification into three branches: the Nordomotische, the much smaller Südomotische, and Mao. The Südomotische ( Aaroid ) consists of only three languages ​​: the Hamer - Banna, Aari ( Ari ) and the dime, the north-east of Lake Turkana (Rudolf Lake ) and east of the lower Omo form a contiguous area and are spoken together of about 210,000 people. The largest branch of the Nordomotischen is the Gonga - Gimojan (ta - ne - group), are among the 15 languages ​​that are scattered in western Ethiopia. Also on Nordomotischen the Dizi Sheko or Dizoid heard with three languages ​​west of the Omo. The poorly explored Mao, which consists of four languages ​​at the Ethiopian- Sudanese border, prepared according to the recent classifications a third branch of Omotischen dar. After Hayward 2003 ( similar to 1976 Fleming and Bender 2000) has the following internal structure Omotische thus:

External classification

Omotisch as a branch of the Cushitic

The first attempt to the external classification omotischer languages ​​undertook Leo Reinisch who has not yet recognized the familiar omotischen languages ​​as a genetic unit, but with other languages ​​of Northeast Africa by the name " Hochkuschitisch " as Cushitic and thus Afro-Asiatic languages ​​filed. Mario Martino Moreno ordered 1940 omotischen languages ​​then under the name " Westkuschitisch " as a separate branch of the Cushitic one, which the other Cushitic languages ​​were compared as " ani - ati - languages ​​." This was based on Moreno's finding that the " Westkuschitische " from the rest of the Cushitic differs in a fundamental way. The classificatory work of other researchers such as Joseph Greenberg, who added the Cushitic the Südkuschitische, Reserve left Morenos structure unchanged.

Omotisch as the main branch of the Afro Asian

Because of the fundamental differences that separate the Omotische of the Cushitic ( other ) languages ​​, divided Harold Fleming 1969, the " Westkuschitische " as " Aari - Kafa " from the Cushitic and classified it as a separate branch of the Afro Asiatic. In Fleming 1976, he developed his hypothesis and coined in reference to the Omo River the name " Omotisch ". As evidence of the status of the Omotischen outside the Cushitic he called among other things the following features:

• Results lexicostatistical studies omotischer and Cushitic languages ​​, according to which the Cushitic languages ​​are to each other have about 10 % of the lexicon together, while the correspondences between Cushitic and Omotisch be less than 10 %
• Absence of k for the Cushitic typical genus marker ( masculine ) and t ( feminine ) in Omotischen
• Low similarities in the personal pronouns
• Lack of pharyngeal sounds in Omotischen

At the same time called Fleming isoglosses that should prove the Omotische as the Afro Asian belong. Among these morphological similarities were ( for example, the Kausativsuffix - s and * s "we"), and 21 lexical matches from the basic vocabulary. The vast majority of Africanists has joined Fleming's hypothesis, other scientists supported them since then with additional isoglosses from the lexical and morphological area; The following table gives some examples:

The position within the Afro Asiatic is not yet finally resolved. Not least due to the large differences between the Omotischen and the rest of the Afro Asiatic, some scientists have suggested that Omotische have split off the first subfamily of Afro Asiatic. Others hold a close relationship between Omotisch and Cushitic.

Other hypotheses

Some researchers classify the Omotische continue as a branch of the Cushitic, so Marcello Lamberti provides several possible further work isoglosses. Others have doubts as to the affiliation of the Südomotischen expressed to Omotischen and expect it instead to the Nilo-Saharan. This is supported for example by the personal pronouns of the Südomotischen that are likely to be genetically related to the Nilo-Saharan pronouns (see the section on the personal pronouns ). 1982 Derek Elderkin expressed the suspicion that the Omotische together with the Hadza fancy a family of languages ​​, which would be subordinate to the Afro Asiatic. Finally, the view is expressed, the similarities between Omotisch and the rest of the Afro Asian did not justify the adoption of a genetic relationship, which is why the Omotische be regarded as an independent language family.

Linguistic characteristics

General

The omotischen languages ​​have partly agglutinative, fusional part, almost exclusively suffigierende morphology:

• Agglutinierend: Yem go on - se -f - ∅ -à plural present tense 3. Person feminine " they go "
• Fusional: Aari ʔíts - eka eat 3. Person pl Konverb " by eating "

Inflection by suprasegmental morphemes found in individual languages ​​, such as the dizi and the Bench; historically it is partially about reflexes of affixes:

• Bench sum ˩ "Name", sum -s ˦ " call"

The nominal morphology is based on a Nominativ-Akkusativ/Absolutivsystem; for the verbal morphology is a complex flexion by categories such as tense / aspect, interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - negative predicative forms and congruence with the subject characteristic. In the syntax, the word order of subject-object - verb ( SOV ) is generally valid; Post positions will be used, which can be regarded as typical of both SOV languages ​​in general and for the Ethiopian region.

Phonology

Segmental phonemes

The omotischen languages ​​have an average of a little less than thirty consonantal phonemes, which is a relatively high number, but is also found in other primary branches of the Afro Asiatic. Widespread are bilabial, alveolar, velar and glottal plosives, fricatives different, alveolar affricates and / w /, / y /, / l /, / r /, / m /, / n /. It is typical of the non- glottal plosives that they are each represented by a voiced, an unvoiced and an unvoiced phoneme ejektives; fricatives and affricates even when there are some all three types. Most languages ​​have additional consonants. Examples are the implosives in Südomotischen ( / ɓ /, / ɗ /, / ɠ / ) and the retro flexes the Bench. Partial consonants can also geminiert occur. Representatives of Nordomotischen and Mao have five or six vowel phonemes, the quantity is partially meaningless distinctive; for the Südomotische contrast, significantly more extensive vowel systems are typical.

Suprasegmental properties

All omotischen languages ​​for which sufficient data are available, are tonal languages ​​which differ mostly only two tones (high and low ), some languages ​​have more sounds: the Dizi distinguishes three, the Bench six. Certain omotischen languages ​​such as Aari and the Ganza (Mao ) have tonal accent systems in which each separate word has exactly one tweeter, in most languages ​​the sounds, however, are distributed freely.

Morphology

Nominal morphology

The omotischen languages ​​distinguish between the nominal categories number, case, gender and definiteness. These categories are marked by different suffixes that can be fusional or analytically depending on the language. The two genera are in all omotischen languages ​​for which sufficient data are available, masculine and feminine; they essentially correspond to the natural gender. The case system records the omotischen languages ​​from the accusative, another case adverbial form various provisions. A number of languages ​​have a omotischen absolutive case, the citation and the direct object marked ( examples from the Wolaita ):

• Absolutive keett -a "house "
• Nominative keett -i "the house "

Some common case suffixes are:

• Nominative * -i ( Gonga - Gimojan, Dizi Sheko )
• Accusative * -m ( Südomotisch )
• Genitive * kV ( Gonga - Gimojan, Dizi Sheko, Mao, Dime )
• Dative * -s ( Gonga - Gimojan, Dizi Sheko, Mao? )

A typological peculiarity which is also isolated within the Omotischen, is the people - and gender dependence of the nominative in the Bench ( depending on the person either -i or-a ˧ ˧ ):

• A ˦ tsin ˦ -a ˧ " a woman " (3rd person singular feminine )
• Now -a ˧ ˧ "we" ( 1st person plural exclusive)
• Nas ˦ i ˧ "a man " (3rd person singular masculine )

In most languages ​​, the singular is unmarked, while the plural has its own suffixes. It is possible that Pluralsuffixe have arisen in some languages ​​from a partitive construction. This is supported by the length of certain Pluralsuffixe, formal relations with the genitive singular and the fact that the Determinationssuffix partially stands before the plural suffix, which is typologically unusual:

• Dizi Kian -à -k ʾ Anka's Dog Det plural " dogs "
• Yem ʔasú -ni - kito Human gene. Plural " people "

Pronouns

The personal pronouns are different in most languages ​​omotischen similar categories such as nouns; the genera are, however, usually marked only in the 3rd person singular. Mostly, the personal pronouns for each person - number - gender combination, a separate trunk on, then the case suffixes are appended, which are identical in all people. Part of pronouns shows similarities with other Afro-Asiatic language family, and therefore can be traced back to the Proto - Afro-Asiatic; certain südomotische personal pronouns can be explained as borrowings from neighboring Nilo- Saharan:

The case endings of personal pronouns and nouns are usually identical:

• Aari: accusative m: yé -m " you," Fatir -in- the " corn "

Above all, however, possessive pronouns have distinct forms:

• Aari: yé "your " ʔéed - te " a man "

Verbal morphology

The omotischen languages ​​possess synthetic conjugation systems, which work mainly with affixes. Most are either distinguished the tenses preterite / perfect, present tense, future tense or the perfect and imperfect aspects, partly as durative action types; these categories are summarized below with the term TAM ( tense - aspect mode). In many languages ​​omotischen the TAM marker is closely related to the oppositions interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - negative together. Also, have conjugated verbs morphemes, which establish the concordance with the subject with regard to person, number, and ( in some people) genus. A number omotischer languages ​​also has its own Nebensatzkonjugationen that are formed exclusively in subordinate clauses and have a much reduced form of education.

TAM markers

As already mentioned, TAMs are mainly characterized by affixes, which in many languages ​​closely related to the negative category - related Affirmative. Some southern and nordomotische languages ​​mark the imperfective of action by reduplication of the verbal stem. The following table lists TAM markers omotischer different languages ​​on:

People marker

Most languages ​​mark person, number and gender of the subject in each finite verb form by a single morpheme fusionales. This is either TAM - dependent or identical in all TAMs. The following table lists people of different markers omotischer languages ​​:

The Ometo has two additional, entirely of vowels have existing rows of people markers that formal similarities with some enumerated above personal morphemes in Gonga and Yem:

As detailed below, the three groups of personal affixes in Ometo verb forms can be combined.

Interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - Negative

Omotischen languages ​​are marking these distinctions three different formal means are available: own TAM marker, own people and their own markers, no other categories indicating affixes:

• Dizi ā- sɛ̄ - CN 2 person sg " look " interrogatives present " do you see? "
• Bench ham ˦ -arg - u ˦ ˨ -e ˧ " go " negative finite " he did not "
• Gamo ʔutt -a- d -ee "sit" 3. Person sg f Perfect affirmatively 3. Person sg f interrogative " she was? "

Sequence of Konjugationsmorpheme

Discussed herein morphemes follow outside of individual languages ​​(Mao, interrogative forms in Dizi, Hamer ) on the verb stem, the order is usually verbal stem - TAM - person / number / gender:

Often there are additional suffixes; Bench in about finite verb forms to be completed with -e: han ˧ - k ' u ˨ -e ˧ go Perfect 3. Person sg finite "he went "

A more complicated, typologically very remarkable sequence possess the verbal forms of the western, central and southern Ometo, which often can occur several markers for person / number / gender at a time. Specifically, the following suffixes are possible:

• Vocalic suffixes (see section " persons Marker" )
• Personal ending: Fusionales morpheme for person, number, gender, interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - Negative
• TAM marker, partially dependent on interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - Negative

What suffixes are used and in what order they are depends on the three categories of TAM, interrogative - Declarative and Affirmative - negative from so already surrendered eight possible combinations of two TAMs. The following examples are taken from the Gofa ( Zentralometo ):

The Ostometo has a different conjugation, which can be traced back historically to a periphrastic conjugation ( examples from the Zayse ):

It is worth mentioning that due to the paucity of materials poorly known verbal system of Mao, in which the Konjugationsmorpheme in different sequences before and after the verb stem are:

• "Eat" Ganza wa - closer -ma- ʔogwä Perfect 2nd person sg interrogative "have you eaten? "

Other finite forms

The jussive and the representing him in the second person imperative differ in their conjugation of other synthetic verb forms significantly. Imperatives are formed by suffixes that differ only singular and plural, the suffix of the imperative singular is usually - ∅ or a vowel; negated and affirmative imperatives often use different Numerussuffixe:

• Dime yíz -í "Run! " Yíz - Koy "is not over! "

Many omotische languages ​​also have complex verbal forms with auxiliary verbs that are used to express temporal and modal distinctions; in some languages ​​show individual TAMs according to person and number invariable forms. A further characteristic of the existence of Omotischen Nebensatzkonjugationen in which temporal Nebensatzkonjugationen ( Bender 2000 referred to as " Konverb " ) particularly frequently. Their Konjugationssuffixe have specific characteristics.

Verbalderivation

In all subgroups of Omotischen for which sufficient data are available to find suffixes to derive verbs from other verbs. * s ( > s, š, c, nts, and others) serves to form transitive ( causative and faktitiven ) verbs; * t ( > t, int, en, st, d, etc.), however, is intransitive:

• Yem on " go " - " let go " on -s
• Gamo zar " reply " - zar - ett " answer "

Syntax

Object - - In Omotischen the word order prevails subject verb ( SOV ) before:

Noun phrases, both the structure of head - on head - modifying element as well as modifying element. Characteristic of some omotische languages ​​is that nominal categories are not marked on the head, but to complete the noun phrase: