United States presidential election debates

TV duels (also televised debates ) are special televised debates in which take two top candidates for high political office. So-called televised debates are acquisitions of the U.S. election campaign debates that have a long, originally academic tradition and not primarily take place in television studios.

• 3.1 Austria
• 3.2 United Kingdom
• 3.3 France

TV duels in the U.S.

In the United States the first debate between the two presidential candidates took place long before the invention of television. 1858 debated Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas seven times on a single theme: the future of slavery in the United States. A 60 - minute speech block followed by a 90 minute response and a 30- minute summary. Through this debate format, the candidates had the opportunity to present their positions long enough property. The first transmitted on the radio campaign debate took place in 1948: The two Republican candidates Harold Stassen and Thomas E. Dewey debated a ban on the Communist Party. 1956 Finally, as television brought the first campaign debate. The two Democratic candidates Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver stood in the opposite primaries.

The actual history of American television debates began in the presidential campaign in 1960 with the first presidential debate between Republican Vice President Richard Nixon and his Democratic opponent, John F. Kennedy. On September 26, 1960, Nixon and Kennedy were compared in a CBS studio in Chicago in the first of four one-hour debates. To this first of four duels to myths as to no more televised debate afterwards. Nixon was the favorite, but he had a longer hospital stay behind, in which he had lost almost 14 kg. From countless campaign appointments rushed, he met pale and sickly in the studio. He was also badly shaved. Because the tanned Kennedy did not want to be made ​​up, renounced Nixon to a makeup artist. In the debate he often voice failed. While Kennedy looked into the camera and so spoke to the audience in front of the TV directly, Nixon turned to Kennedy, as if to convince him. Nixon lost the duel and later the election.

The political myth of the random -critical television debate in which it matters more on appearances than on the contents, was born. Hardly anyone interested in today for what happened in the remaining three debates, one of which was incidentally transmitted in split-screen method, because the two candidates could not be in the same studio. Hardly anyone remembers that there was a long-term trend in favor of the Democrats before the duels. Almost no one discussed the influence of the post-coverage in the newspapers that little else themed after the duel as Nixon's poor appearance. To confirm the strong influence of television images instead survey results are reported over and over again, after which Nixon had the debate with those who persecuted they the radio gained. This is, however, on closer analysis hardly verifiable. Also, a recent study for the German TV debate in 2005 shows that the impact of visual elements in TV duels are greatly overestimated.

In 1976 there came a second time to a campaign presidential debate. Earlier, at least one of the candidates had refused on several grounds, participate in a debate. Gerald Ford was the election campaign in 1976 above all lost to Jimmy Carter, according to legend, because he in the second of three debates -. Was about foreign policy - made ​​a fatal mistake Ford initially said about the role of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe. " There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, and there never will be under a Ford administration " Even on repeated questioning, he maintained its view, Eastern Europe was not dominated by the Soviet Union. The audience had not noticed the error during the debate. Only when it next day themed mass media, told the audience Ford loser of the debate. The first of three debates in 1976 is also regarded as the birth of the so-called "Instant Analysis", the direct analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates appearance by the television commentators. Earlier, the journalists had concerns about whether such interference was appropriate in the judgment of the audience. In the middle of the debate took place in the theater, from which it was transferred to a 27 -minute loss of sound, the television commentators used spontaneously to discuss the occurrence of the candidates. They also led discussions with their advisors (so-called spin- Doctor). In the following years, such analyzes were, of course, immediately after the end of the debates.

After the 1976 election campaign, the debates institutionalized so that in the following period could refuse no longer a presidential candidate to participate. 1980 and 1992 were obtained from the three fights duels.

In 1980, the challenger and subsequent election winner Ronald Reagan in a first debate against the independent candidate John B. Anderson, because incumbent Jimmy Carter refused to participate in a debate with Anderson. In the second debate, Reagan went alone against Carter. In 1992, with Ross Perot again an independent candidate in part because his campaign was considered " the national interest "; for a system where the only candidates allowed to participate that can win at least 15 percent of voters, according to polls, had previously been abolished. Perot took part in all three debates, according to legend, decided among other things that Bush looked at his watch during a debate.

As of 1960, the major television networks had organized the first presidential debates; in 1976 took over the organization of independent commissions: up to and including 1984, the League of Women Voters, as of 1988, the Commission on Presidential Debates. They also laid down the debate formats that varied considerably in some cases. The number of debates fluctuated in the election years between two and four. Apart from the debates in 1960 and the first debate in 1980 (60 minutes), the debate length was 90 minutes. The candidates had three minutes ( in the beginning ) and 90 seconds ( since 1996) time to answer a question. The other had each candidate usually between one and two minutes for a reply. Since 1976, the candidates will have the opportunity for a long between two and four minutes final word. Until 1992, it was almost always the case that a group of three to six journalists were present in addition to the moderator, who could also ask. In two debates - the respective second in 1992 and 1996 - the so-called Town Hall format was applied, in which a group of undecided voters ask the candidates questions. Because the candidates respond only in all formats ever applied in U.S. presidential elections, but never discuss with each other, some observers doubt that they can ever be called debates. They were therefore often called " double public press conference " ( "double public press conference " ) or "joint press conference " ( " joint press conference " ) called.

TV duels in Germany

Approaches to television duels before 2002

Already, the then Vice-Chancellor and Chancellor candidate of the SPD, Willy Brandt called before the federal election in 1969 the incumbent Kiesinger (CDU ) to a televised debate after the U.S. model, but with more participants, out, which ask journalists within the ZDF series - politicians should respond to run. Kiesinger refused, however, even the ZDF did not want such a duel. Kiesinger spoke, moreover, against a round with all the leading politicians from: ". , It is the Chancellor of the Federal Republic is not good to sit in a little chair and wait for the word to him is granted " At the last moment he had to because of public pressure comply. The format consisted primarily of previously agreed issues that were addressed to each one of the four participants.

Before the general election of 1972, the discussion about the number of participants repeated with the opposite sign. Brandt, now chancellor, rejected the Union's proposal from a TV debate with challenger Barzel. He reasoned, would not be about a chancellor choice, but a federal election. Instead there was a so-called elephant round with the chancellor and top candidates of the parties represented in parliament. Thus, a tradition was established, which was maintained till the elections in 1987.

Before the general election in 1976 Helmut Kohl challenged the incumbent Helmut Schmidt. However, this declined.

At the general election of 1980, a TV debate was again talking. A majority of citizens was according to a survey by Emnid it. Once again, the party of the challenger CDU / CSU was ( candidate: Franz Josef Strauss ) for a TV debate, the party of the incumbent Helmut Schmidt (SPD ) against.

From the 1990 Federal Elections the incumbent Chancellor Helmut Kohl declared himself no longer willing to participate in the elephant rounds that took place up to that point a few days before the elections. Thus it came on TV in this form no longer to direct encounters between the incumbent and candidate for the chancellorship of the largest opposition party.

For the first televised debate in a German election campaign, it came before the state election in Hamburg in 1997 between the incumbent Henning Voscherau (SPD ) and challenger Ole von Beust ( CDU).

1998 debated Gerhard Schroeder and challenger Christian Wulff in Lower Saxony state election campaign. Both debates were transferred to N3. Wulff his defeat years later explained mainly with the fact that he - have too often viewed the moderator and rarely looked into the camera - unlike Schröder. When television duel against Schroeder's successor, Sigmar Gabriel, five years later he is deemed the winner.

In the 1998 election had Schröder, challenged with the positive experience from the Lower Saxony duel in the back, the incumbent Helmut Kohl for TV debate. Kohl refused.

In the described time, there were additional weeks or months before the parliamentary elections also repeatedly televised debates, to which some of the top candidates or other leaders or professional politicians of the parties represented in parliament were involved.

2002 elections

So it was only before the federal election in 2002 to the first two real duels between the incumbent Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and his challenger Edmund Stoiber. The first ( on August 25 ) was transferred from RTL and Sat.1 ( RTL where a significantly higher audience recorded ) and reached 14.98 million viewers, the second ( September 8 ) from the First German Television ZDF and (where more The audience first turn-on there ) was seen by 15.26 million people. The first televised debate was moderated by Peter Limbourg and Kloeppel, the second of Sabine Christiansen and Maybrit Illner.

Both duels were rated as interesting and enriching the election campaign; also a continuation of the idea has been advocated. However, the majority of viewers of the opinion that no new information has been conveyed.

2002 came alongside the TV duels to several televised debates.

2005 federal election

In the subsequent general election on 18 September 2005 it should again come to the will of the previous incumbent Gerhard Schröder to two television duels, where challenger Angela Merkel expressed to participate in only one due to scheduling problems. Schroeder then threw Merkel of alleged scheduling problems only advance for fear that they could be exposed by television viewers as the chancellor with the poorer policy. In negotiations between Schröder, Merkel and broadcasters, they agreed on only one chancellor duel, was selected for the several dates of the 4th of September. On this date the dispute from 20:30 clock to 22:00 clock took place. It was transferred from four TV stations (ARD, ZDF, RTL and Sat.1 ) and was on several radio stations to track ( and Others in Germany radio ). Questions by Sabine Christiansen ( ARD), Maybrit Illner ( ZDF), Kloeppel (RTL ) and Thomas Kausch ( Sat.1 ). This mission reached a 20.98 million viewers, the highest ever viewing figures of all the televised debates.

In the opinion of a small portion of the press Angela Merkel won the duel itself, other editorialists and especially the opinion polls to a duel saw Schröder in almost all respects as the winner. One of the main topics of discussion were the visions for the design of the tax law of Paul Kirchhof.

In 2005, there was next to the TV debate to several televised debates.

2009 federal election

Before the general election on 27 September 2009, there came on 13 September at a televised debate between incumbent and challenger Angela Merkel, Frank-Walter Steinmeier. The televised debate against Merkel, Steinmeier was broadcast live from 20.30 clock simultaneously on five stations (ARD, ZDF, RTL and Sat.1 and with sign language interpreters at Phoenix ). Questions by Frank Plasberg (ARD), Maybrit Illner ( ZDF), Kloeppel (RTL ) and Peter Limbourg ( Sat.1 ). The viewers' interest was significantly lower than in 2005. 15.26 million viewers tuned in to it.

As in 2002 and 2005, there was next to the TV duel more televised debates, it was September 14, 2009 the "TV powerlifting " (analogous to " TV debate " ) on the Guido Westerwelle ( FDP), Trittin (Alliance 90/The Greens) and Oskar Lafontaine ( Die Linke ) took part.

Bundestag election in 2013

At the 2013 federal election on 22 September, the chancellor duel between the current office bearer Angela Merkel ( CDU ) and the SPD Chancellor candidate Peer Steinbrück was held on September 1, 2013 from 20:30 clock and 22:00 clock. The show was of Anne Will (NDR ), Maybrit Illner ( ZDF), Kloeppel (RTL ) and Stefan Raab ( ProSieben) moderated. The duel was sent at the same time live on all four channels. In addition, it was re- aired at Phoenix with a sign language interpreter. Taken together on all five channels watched this duel 17.64 million people.

The TV debate traditionally subject to some rules. The debate of the federal election campaign in 2013 meetings depended on the following conventions:

The televised debate was first broadcast in 2013 in HD quality. The outcome of the duel was not unique. According to a survey by the Institute infra dimap for ARD felt 49 percent Peer Steinbrück after the end of the TV duel as the winner. 44 percent saw Merkel forward. In the areas of aggressiveness is (88 percent to 5 percent ), course (44 to 40 ) and better reasoning (48 to 38) of the SPD candidate was ahead. In relation to improved fairness (45 to 13), more sympathetic appearance (52 to 32 ), credibility (45 to 41) and competence (47 to 40 ), the Chancellor reached better results. In the competitive target group of undecided voters, however, again scored Steinbrück: 52 percent felt it was better, 36 percent voted for Merkel. Some media, the event was rated as rather dull and therefore was reported in part on side issues, such as the appearance of political broadcasts in little experienced presenter Stefan Raab and in particular Merkel necklace that went under the term " Germany chain " through the media.

As in 2002, 2005 and 2009, there is next to the TV duel more televised debates, so on September 2, 2013, "TV powerlifting " (analogous to " TV debate " ) between Rainer Brüderle (FDP), Trittin ( Alliance 90 / The Greens) and Gregor Gysi ( Die Linke ).

Odds

More TV duels in Germany

In Germany, among others, the following television duels found in state election battles take place:

• Before the state elections in Brandenburg 2004, a televised debate between the incumbent Matthias Platzeck (SPD) and his challengers Dagmar grandson man (PDS ) and of Brandenburg, (CDU ) was held. It was aired on RBB.
• Before the state election in Schleswig -Holstein in 2005 found a television debate between Prime Minister Heide Simonis (SPD ) and her challenger by the CDU, Peter Harry Carstensen, instead.
• Before the state election in North Rhine -Westphalia in 2005 found two television duels take place with the two top candidates of the major parties. Prime Minister Peer Steinbrück (SPD ) was up against his challenger Jürgen Rüttgers ( CDU).
• Before being elected to the House of Representatives of Berlin on 17 September 2006, a TV debate between the Governing Mayor Klaus Wowereit (SPD ) and his challenger Fried Pflüger (CDU ) was held at the RBB.
• Likewise, it came before the state election in Mecklenburg- Vorpommern 2006 to a dispute between Prime Minister Harald Ringstorff (SPD) and his opponent Jürgen Seidel (CDU ) in the NDR.
• A week before the state election in Hesse in 2008 a television debate between Roland Koch (CDU ) and the challenger Andrea Ypsilanti (SPD ) took place.
• His third televised debate graduated from Christian Wulff (CDU ) before the state election in 2008. According to the duels against Gerhard Schröder ( 1998) and Gabriel (2003) he entered on 23 January 2008 against Wolfgang Jüttner (SPD).
• Before the state election in Hamburg in 2008 transferred from the NDR TV debate between Mayor Ole von Beust (CDU ) and his challenger Michael Naumann ( SPD) took place on 17 February 2008. Naumann had it in his closing remarks, a misfire.
• In addition, a television debate between the Prime Minister Günther Beckstein ( CSU) and his challenger Franz Maget (SPD ) took place in Bavaria in 2008 before the state election.
• Before the state election in Schleswig -Holstein in 2009 a television duels between Prime Minister Peter Harry Carstensen took place (CDU ) and his challenger from the SPD Ralf Stegner.
• Before the state election in Baden- Württemberg in 2011 a television debate between the Prime Minister Stefan undersecretary (CDU ) and his challenger Nils Schmid ( SPD) took place. According to organizers, SWR was oriented selection of the election results of the previous period. Was not invited to the leading in the polls Winfried Kretschmann ( GREEN ), which was ultimately elected prime minister.
• Ahead of the state elections in Rhineland -Palatinate in 2011, it came on 16 March 2011 for the TV debate. Incumbent Kurt Beck ( SPD) turned on SWR television challenger Julia Klöckner ( CDU).
• Before being elected to election to the House of Berlin 2011 on September 6, 2011, a TV debate between the Governing Mayor Klaus Wowereit (SPD) and his CDU challenger Frank Henkel took place in the RBB. A second duel took place between Klaus Wowereit and his Green Party challenger Renate Künast on 8 September 2011.
• Before the state election in North Rhine -Westphalia in 2012 took place on 30 April 2012 at the WDR television debate between Prime Minister Hannelore Kraft (SPD ) and challenger Röttgen (CDU ) instead.
• Ahead of the state elections in Schleswig- Holstein in 2012 a television debate between Jost de Jager (CDU) and Torsten Albig (SPD ) took place on May 2, 2012 will take on NDR television, which followed as specified by the NDR alone in Schleswig -Holstein of about 80,000 spectators been. The same day, a debate took place with the top candidates of the smaller parties represented in the parliament, Wolfgang Kubicki (FDP ), Robert Habeck ( GREEN ), Anke Spoorendonk (SSW ) and Antje Jansen ( LEFT ).
• Ahead of the state elections in Lower Saxony in 2013 met on January 10, 2013 Prime Minister David McAllister (CDU) and his challenger Stephan Weil (SPD ) for TV debate in the NDR. A day earlier, there was a debate between Stefan Birkner (FDP ), Stefan Wenzel ( Green ) and Manfred Son ( Die Linke ).
• Eleven days before the state elections in Bavaria in 2013 transferred the Bayerische Rundfunk in its television and radio programs, a debate between the two leading candidates Horst Seehofer (CSU ) and Christian Ude (SPD). Was moderated by the duel of Sigmund Gottlieb. He also hosted a day later, the three-way battle of the top candidates of FDP, Greens and FDP, Martin Zeil, Margarete Bause and Hubert Aiwanger.

Televised debates in other countries

Television debates during election campaigns, there are not only in the United States, but now in many democratic countries. The debate formats in some countries are based on the U.S. model: often occur only the candidates of the two major parties against each other ( in Europe, for example in France and Spain). The design of the rules differs in detail, however, considerably from the American formats. In many other countries, the candidates of all parties represented in Parliament take part. These are consequently no duels, but in general, larger rounds in which the participants discuss with each other. Examples include Canada and Australia, which also has a number of different formats.

Austria

In Austria, calls this type of mail "TV confrontation." The first of its kind, there were already 1970 between Bruno Kreisky (SPÖ ) and the top candidates to the ÖVP Josef Klaus ( cf. Regina Köpl 2007:127 ) - the first televised debate in Austria but achieved so little viewers, so that today the duel between Kreisky and ÖVP challenger Josef Taus is considered primal duel: There was no moderator, no rules and thus quite different from the Presidential Debates in the United States, of which the format was adopted. In Austria Kreisky was a clear winner of the duel.

Today at the National Elections a whole series is broadcast with that title, with two of the top candidates of all parties represented in facing each other. As a conclusion, there are a few days before the election, a panel discussion, attended by all the candidates. Such a round since 2006 - referred to as " elephant round " - in taking over from Germany. During the 2008 elections, the top candidates of all other nationwide antretenden parties were first invited to such a confrontation, but remained " under itself" and were not compared with the representatives of the parliamentary parties - this confrontation mission is also known as " ants round ".

TV confrontations, there is also in the context of elections to the Austrian Federal President.

Great Britain

In the UK a television debate in 2010 was first held in the run-up to the British general election, given the themes of a representative group of spectators, but demands and applause were banned. Participants were Gordon Brown ( Labour ), David Cameron ( Conservatives ) and Nick Clegg ( LibDems ).

France

• On 10 May 1974, the two candidates debated ( in the runoff ) to the Office of the French President - Francois Mitterrand and Valéry Giscard d' Estaing - the first time in a radio broadcast. At the time, this was chosen for seven years.
• Before the election on May 19, 1981 came to a " duel " May 5, 1981 (again between the two );
• Before the 1988 election to an April 28, 1988 between the Mitterand and Jacques Chirac.
• On 2 May 1995 discussed Chirac and Lionel Jospin ( Chirac won the election )
• 2002 Jean -Marie Le Pen came as a surprise in the run-off election; Chirac refused to discuss this with politicians. Chirac won the election.
• On 2 May 2007 discussed Ségolène Royal and Nicolas Sarkozy. Previously discussed at the April Royal and third place (François Bayrou ) 28. Sarkozy won the election ( and according to the polls before the duel ).

Scientific investigation

TV duels are studied in the U.S. for a long time. In Germany the scientific study has begun with the first televised debate at the federal level in 2002.

Following the televised debates respective surveys were in retrospect, on behalf of the transferor television stations, instead, in which viewers were interviewed by telephone about their opinions, and views by pre- questionnaires. A presentation and interpretation of these results shortly after the duels can lead to a distortion of the viewers opinion, as these can be influenced in their opinion through surveys.

2002, 2005 and 2009 perception and action of the television duel 2009 by communication scientists, communication and media psychologists and political scientists at the University of Koblenz- Landau, LMU Munich, the University of Mainz, the University of Mannheim and the University of Hohenheim were investigated. All activities currently carried out in Germany for studies televised debate Merkel - Steinmeier that they jointly measure the perception and evaluation of the politicians in real time. RTR is a method for measuring the perception of the viewer. A study on the German television duels since 2002 asked how one could measure political media impact at the moment of communication ( "real-time "). A method ( real-time response measurement, short RTR) should be measured the perception and assessment of the recipient to the course of the duel already during which over input devices of the subjects and see what really influenced the voters. Result: audience particularly appreciated general statements and wanted to hear what a large part of the audience proved. Attacks on political opponents and the designation of facts and truths by politicians they took basically true as particularly negative. However, this happens at viewers who pursue a fee the program is not at home, but usually in a university lecture hall.

A recent publication from these studies shows that the effects of visual elements in TV duels are apparently greatly overestimated. This is in contrast to always bandied in the media myth of the superiority of the images on TV duels ( Nixon - Kennedy - myth ).

Criticism

The communication scientist Wolfgang Donsbach repeated in Germany radio 's earlier criticism, according to which the format of the TV duel did not fit the German political system. The duel promotes the personalization of politics by concentrating everything on the two top candidates. They also state that acted as if there were only two parties. Unlike in the U.S. where there is a presidential system, were here all the other parties under the table. He doubted also that the outcome of the election will be determined by such discussions. The format promotes the de-politicization insofar as many viewers their opinion about the political positions of the parties on the external representation of the two discussants, and their appearance on the television program based. Many viewers also revised their own unbiased opinion about the outcome of such recognized " duels " yet later on the reports on the television program.