Turkic languages

The Turkic languages ​​- also called Turkish or Turkic languages ​​languages ​​- form a Eurasian widespread language family of about 40 relatively closely related languages ​​with about 180 to 200 million speakers. They are divided into a southwestern ( oghusische ), southeastern ( Uighur ), Western ( Kipchak ) and Northeastern ( Siberian ) group, also in the branches Arghu and Bolgar - Turkish.

With the Mongolian and Tungusic languages, the Turkic languages ​​are summarized to the group of Altaic languages. Whether " Altai " is a genetic or just an areal unit, is still unclear. The majority of the research is based on an areal Sprachbund.

• 2.1 Special case Chuvash
• 2.2 Special case Khalaj
• 2.3 The other Turkic languages
• 2.4 classification scheme
• 2.5 Linguistic classification criteria
• 2.6 Word equations of the Turkic languages

• 3.1 The typological characteristics
• 3.2 phonemes on the example of the Turkish
• 3.3 According harmony with the example of the Turkish
• 3.4 Morphology of the Turkic languages 3.4.1 case marking
• 3.4.2 personal pronouns
• 3.4.3 possessive suffixes
• 3.4.4 Noun Phrase
• 3.4.5 The verbal system of the Turkic languages

• 4.1 migration
• 4.2 Chronology

The family of Turkic languages

With a total of about 40 languages ​​spoken by 180 million people as a native language (up to 200 million with second- speakers ), the family of Turkic languages ​​is by far the largest and most important of the three subgroups of Altaic. It is - according to the number of its speakers - the seventh largest language family in the world ( according to Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Niger - Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Austronesian, and Dravidian ).

Most Turkic languages ​​are in phonology, morphology and syntax very similar, but soft Chuvash, Siberian Turkic Khalaj and the northern Yakut and Dolganisch significantly from that for the other. Between the speakers of most Turkic languages ​​, a partial mutual understanding is possible, especially if they are the same sub- group includes ( for classification see the next section ). This relatively large similarity of the languages ​​complicates the clear definition of language barriers, especially since usually there are transitional dialects between neighboring languages ​​. ( Often these limits are artificially drawn by political decisions and affiliations. ) The internal genetic structure of the Turkic languages ​​is problematic because of their similarity and intense mutual influence, which has led to different classification approaches.

Geographical distribution

The Turkic languages ​​are over a vast territory in eastern and south-eastern Europe and western, central and northern Asia spreads (see Distribution Map ). This area stretches from the Balkans to China, from central Persia to the North Sea. In about thirty countries of Eurasia one or more Turkic languages ​​are spoken in significant degree, remarkably high proportion is Turkish Speaking in Germany and other Western Europe due to the migrations of the past decades. ( See also: Turkic languages ​​by States)

The main Turkic

The three by far the largest Turkic languages ​​are:

• Turkish 60 million speakers, with 70 million speakers Second: Turkey, Balkan States; also Western and Central Europe ( by recent migration)
• Azerbaijani ( Azeri ) 30 million speakers: Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran, also in eastern Turkey and northern Iraq
• Uzbek 24 million speakers: Uzbekistan, northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Western China

Other Turkic languages ​​with more than one million speakers:

• Kazakh 11 million speakers: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, China, Russia
• Uighur 8 million speakers: mainly in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China
• Turkmen 6.8m Speaker: Turkmenistan, northern Iran
• Tatar 5.5 million (2010). Speaker: ( ethnically 6.6 million) from Central Russia to western Siberia
• Kyrgyz 4.5 million speakers: Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, western China
• Chuvash 1.8 million speakers: in the European part of Russia
• Bashkir 1.8 million speakers: in the Russian autonomous republic of Bashkiria

• Kaschgaisch 1.5 million speakers: in the provinces of Fars, Khuzestan Iran

Numbers of speakers 3/2006 audited from various sources. 5% to 10 % higher values ​​are possible by the time interval between collection and publication.

The close relationship of the Turkic languages

How closely the Turkic languages ​​are related to each other - if one disregards Chuvash, Khalaj and the North Siberian Turkic languages ​​- already shows a look at the following table that is not some word equations of the basic vocabulary of the languages ​​of Old Turkish ( the first in writing traditional precursor of all modern Turkic languages ​​, so only the Turkey -Turkish ), Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Tatar, Kazakh, Uzbek and Uighur contains.

Comparison of some basic words in major Turkic languages

Turkic languages ​​as national languages ​​and Offizial

The Turkic languages ​​Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek are national languages ​​in their respective countries. A special status as official regional languages ​​of autonomous republics or provinces also have the following Turkic languages ​​: Chuvash in Russia, Kumyk, Karachay- Balkar, Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Circassian, Tuva, Altai; Uighur in China and Uzbekistan Karakalpakisch.

Turkic languages ​​by State

Turkic languages ​​are spoken in about 30 countries in Europe and Asia. The table shows their distribution in the various states. The languages ​​are grouped by subfamilies (see classification).

Endangered Turkic

Some Turkic languages ​​are endangered in their existence because they are spoken by only a few, mostly elderly. Direct risk of extinction in the next few years are the südsibirische Tofa or Karagassische, the Karaim in Lithuania, the Judeo- Crimean Tatar and Ili Turki in northwestern China ( Ili Valley ). Only a few thousand speakers have the Aynallu in Iran, the Yugur ( Gansu Province) and Ainu ( in Kashgar ), both of China, the North Siberian Dolganisch and südsibirische Tschulymisch, on Chulym River north of the Altai. All other Turkic languages ​​are relatively stable, the numbers of speakers of the major languages ​​to take.

The classification of Turkic languages

The relatively large similarity and intense mutual influence of Turkic languages ​​, as well as the high mobility of Turkic complicates the clear definition of language barriers and the inner genetic classification, which has led to different classification approaches. Nevertheless, today relatively stable and similar organizations have found that go back all ultimately on the Russian linguists Samoilowitsch Alexander (1922 ). Although classifications should be genetically principle, the geographical distribution plays a major role in the breakdown of the Turkic languages ​​. On the question of the relationship of the Turkic with Mongolian and Tungusic languages, see Altaic languages.

Special case Chuvash

The Chuvash forms its own " bolgarischen " (along with the extinct Bolgarischen ) branch of the Turkic languages ​​, which is opposed to the rest of the family ( Turkic i.e., p ) with a relatively wide distance. Some researchers kept the Chuvash not even for a "real" Turkic language, as it is so different from all others. Whether this large difference to an early elimination of the bolgarischen branch from the other Turkic languages ​​or a prolonged period of linguistic and cultural isolation is due, has not yet been clarified. A feature of this separation is the opposition of finalem tschuwaschischem / R / gemeintürkischem / z /, for example, the final consonants in

The Chuvash is spoken by 1 million speakers, mainly in the European part of Russia east of Moscow in the AR Chuvashia in the great Volga arc, more Chuvash there in Tatarstan and Bashkiria ( 1.8 million speakers). The Chuvash are predominantly Russian Orthodox faith, to use in their own print and broadcast media in addition to the Cyrillic alphabet also an adapted Latin alphabet and predominantly speak Russian as a second language. They consider themselves culturally and historically as the successor of the Volga Bolgaren, but this is questionable.

Special case Khalaj

Of the remaining Turkic Khalaj which differs from most. It is - according to the now widely accepted view Gerhard Doerfers - the only still existent representative of the branch of the Turkic languages ​​Arghu, which was also isolated early and then in the course of the 13th century occurs in the central Iranian province - surrounded by speakers of Persian. Today Khalaj is spoken by about 40,000 people in the Iranian Central Province between Qom and Akar and is according to linguistic point of view one of the most interesting Turkic in Iran. The early isolation from other Turkic languages ​​, and the strong influence of the Persian one hand have received archaic features (such as a vowel system with three quantities of short - medium - long, maintaining the initial sound / h / and the old Turkish Dativsuffixes / -ka /: chalad häv.kä -. türk ev.e - " for the house " ), on the other hand ( even led to widespread Iranismen in phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon of some number words ).

The other Turkic languages

The remaining four groups of Turkic languages ​​are divided geographically primarily, although not subject to the present settlement areas for the division, but the early phase of the Turkish languages. According to their first walks and settlement processes Thus, one distinguishes Kiptschakisch or West Turkish, Oghusisch or southwest Turkish ( after the number of its speakers largest group with Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kaschkai ) Karlukisch or Osttürkisch, Northern Turkish, East Turkish and Turkish - Bolgar. Kiptschakisch / West Turkish divided into three subgroups: Kipchak - Bulgarian or Uralic, Kipchak - Oghusisch or Pontic- Caspian and Kipchak - Nogai or aralisch - caspian.

The Yakut and Dolganische soft due to their long isolation in the basic vocabulary heavily on the remaining languages. Different are also word order and sentence structure. In this regard, the Yakut has more matched the Mongolian and Tungusic languages. In addition, all foreign words Persian- Arabic origin that occur in other Turkic languages ​​are missing.

The similarity of the languages ​​of course also contributes to the long Arab- Persian coinage of vocabulary and idioms that have experienced most of Turkic languages ​​by Islam. For the Turkic languages ​​on the territory of the former Soviet Union, many common Russian foreign and loan words are added.

Classification scheme

Overall, for the Turkic languages ​​according to the current literature, the following classification scheme ( with numbers of speakers as of 2006):

Turkic languages

• Oghurisch ( Bolgarisch ) Bolgarisch †, Chuvash ( 1.8 million), Chasarisch †,

• Kiptschakisch (West Turkish) West Crimean Tatar ( 500,000 ), Kumyk ( 280,000 ), Karachay- Balkar ( 250,000 ), Karaim (almost †)
• North Tatar ( 1.6 million), Bashkir ( 2.2 million), Kumanisch †
• South Kazakh ( 11 million), Kyrgyz ( 4.5 million), Karakalpakisch (400,000 ), Nogai ( 70,000 )

• West Turkish ( 60 million, S2 70 million), Azerbaijani ( 30 million, 35 million, S2 ), Gagauz ( 500,000 )
• East Turkmen ( 6.8 million), Khorasan - Turkish ( 400,000? )
• South Qashqai ( 1.5 million), Afshar ( 300,000 ), Aynallu ( 7000 ), Sonqori (?)

• Chagatai Tschagataisch †
• Uzbek Uzbek ( 24 million)
• Uyghur Old Turkish † ( with Orkhon Kok, Yenisey Kok, Old Uighur, Karachanidisch )
• Uyghur ( 8 million)
• Yugur (West Yugur ) (5,000)
• Aynu ( Ainu ) ( 7,000 )
• Ili Turki (100 )

• North Yakut ( 360,000 ), Dolganisch (5000)

• Jenisseisch Circassian ( 65,000 ), Shor (10,000 )
• Sajan Tuvan ( 200,000 ), Tofa ( Karagassisch ) ( †)
• Altaic Altaic ( 50,000 ) ( Dialects: Oirotisch; tuba, Qumanda, Qu; Teleutisch, Telengitisch )
• Chulym Chulym (500)

• Khalaj ( Khalaj ) ( 42,000 )

Linguistic classification criteria

In addition to the geographical there are some traditional linguistic criteria for the above classification:

• The tsuchwaschisch - common Turkish opposition / r / to / z / separates the Oghurische from all other Turkic languages
• The intervocalic consonant in the word for " foot" separates the Siberian Turkic languages ​​of the other groups: tuva adaq, Yakut ataχ against ayaq in the other groups, but hadaq Khalaj.
• The Oghuz languages ​​are separated from the others by the loss of the suffix - initial G- Loud: qalan against qalγan - " left behind "
• The dumbness of the suffix - final G- text separates the Southeast of the Northwest Group: Uighur taγliq against Tatar tawlı - " mountainous ".

Word equations of the Turkic languages

The following table gives an overview of the basic vocabulary in approximately 60 word equations as he realized in several important Turkic languages ​​. The first column shows the inferred proto- forms are listed according to the etymological database of Starostin. ( In many cases, you can see how proto -language finales and intervokalisches / r / - shown here as / r / in -. Too gemeintürkischem / z / was, but not in the Chuvash Instead of IPA codes / ɨ /, the / used Turkish / ı. )

The table clearly shows the different behavior of the Chuvash and Yakut and the great similarity of the other Turkic languages ​​. Proto Turkish denotes the inferred Protoform all Turkic languages ​​, Old Turkish is an early form of Turkic, not specifically the Turkey -Turkish. Gaps in the table, of course, does not mean that the corresponding language is no word for the concept would, but only that this term is formed by another root and thus fails for the etymological comparison in the sense of a word equation.

Linguistic characterization of the Turkic languages

The typological characteristics

In terms of typology, the Turkic great similarity with the other two groups of Altaic languages ​​( Mongolian and Tungusic ) that these features are thus largely gemeinaltaisch and can be found partly in Uralic and Paleo-Siberian languages ​​( see also: Altaic languages).

The most important typological characteristics of the Turkic languages ​​are:

• Medium Phoneminventare (20-30 consonants, vowels 8 ) and simple syllable structure, hardly consonant cluster. (See example of the phoneme inventory Turkish )
• Some Turkic languages ​​( Turkmen, Yakut, Khalaj ) have a quantity of differentiation in the vowels, which is probably old, but otherwise was lost. Traces or effects of the old quantity can also be observed in other Turkic languages ​​.
• According harmony, especially vowel harmony, which is based on different volume oppositions: front-back, rounded - unrounded, high-low. An example from Turkish: elma - lar " apples ", but DERS error " Lessons". The plural marker is named / lar / or / ler /, depending on what type of vowel precedes it. ( Depression and other examples in the section " According harmony.")
• The volume harmony is preserved in varying degrees in almost all Turkic languages ​​, in part, but only in the spoken varieties, while they are no longer in the typeface is clear (eg in Uzbek ).

• A continuous agglutinative word formation and inflection, and indeed almost exclusively by suffixes. ( Prefixes occur at most in the word formation. ) This can lead to very long and complex formations ( but are normally used rarely more than three or four suffixes ). Each morpheme has a specific meaning and grammatical function and - apart from the requirements of vowel harmony - steady.

• Adjectives are not inflected, they do not show concordance with their determination word, which they precede.

• When using quantifiers ( number words, quantities ), the plural marker is omitted.

• There are no items.

• There is no grammatical gender, not even in the pronouns. ( Even the oldest forms of Turkic languages ​​leave no remains of a grammatical gender recognize, so that one can assume that the proto- Turkish did not possess this category.)

• Relative clauses are replaced by participle. In general, instead of subordinate clauses and nominalized used adverbialisierte complex verbal forms. The nominalized forms are similar to infinitive, the adverbial forms are called gerunds or Konverbien.

• The verb is at the end of a sentence, the normal phrase sequence is SOV ( subject-object - verb).

Phoneme inventory using the example of the Turkish

The Turkish shows a typical for Turkic languages ​​phoneme inventory of eight vowels and 20 consonants.

Vowels

The vowels can according to their place of articulation ( front - rear ), rounding ( rounded - rounded), and height ( high - low ) are divided. This classification is for the vocal harmony is crucial.

Consonants

Here is the letter of the Turkish alphabet have been used in square brackets [ ] are the phonetic values ​​.

According harmony with the example of the Turkish

The widespread among the Turkic According harmony affects both the vowels and some consonants. In Turkish, these are k, g, ğ and l

The vowel harmony, ie the approximation of the Suffixvokale to the vowels of the stem or the preceding syllable is to be shown by the example of the Turkish. In the Turkish vowel harmony, based both on the approximation of the place of articulation ( front-back) as well as the assimilation of the type of rounding (rounded - unrounded ) of the respective vowels. Some suffixes are formed according to the so-called small vowel harmony, other, according to the great vocal harmony. While the small vocal harmony in the suffix / e / after the front vowels ( e, i, ö, ü) in the previous syllable and a / a / after the back vowels (a, ı, o, u ) prescribes, in the suffixes that are formed according to the great vocal harmony, a / i / to the front unrounded vowels ( e, i ), a / u / to the front rounded vowels ( ö, ü ), a / ı / to the back unrounded vowels ( a ı, ) and a / u / used by the back rounded vowels (o, u).

Examples

• ( 1) elma - lar " apples " but DERS error " lessons "
• ( 2) ev -en "in house", but orman -da " in the forest "

• (3a ) ISCI - lik " craftsmanship "
• (3b ) pazar - Lik " haggling "
• (3c ) çoğun - luk "majority "
• (3d) ölümsüz - lük " immortality "

• ( 4) Püskül - ümüz - ün

• ( 5) Püskül - ler - imiz - in

• (6 ) torun - umuz - un

• ( 7) torun - lar - ımız - ın

The distinction between rounded and unrounded vowels, although in Turkish universal, but not in all Turkic languages ​​. In Turkish there are exceptions. An example is the word " söylemek " " say, speak " with the meaning. The present stem is usually, according to the above presented great vocal harmony " söyl - ü - yor ". " Söyl -i yecek " and " söyl -i -yen ": In the future and in the present participle, however, the unrounded forms are more common.

The Turkish knows for the light and dark forms of the consonants k, g, ğ and l no different spelling, probably use some Turkic languages ​​for the dark k the letter q. The dark ğ - the letter is only by and between vowels - is no longer spoken in the rest, the light version is a volatile j -sound, the dark l is as in the English word "well ". Should l be spoken clearly before the vowels a or uk, g, or, the vowel is given a circumflex, eg " Kar ", " profit ", but " kar ", " snow " or " klavye " " keyboard ".

Morphology of the Turkic languages

Case marking

Turkic languages ​​have generally six case: nominative (unmarked ), genitive, dative Terminativ, accusative, ablative ( from where? ) And locative (where?). The identification of these cases is done by attached Kasusmarker, which can vary considerably within individual languages. Nevertheless, there is a recognizable general structure, which dates back to the common proto- language that is specified in the marker formula. ( V represents a vowel depends on the vowel harmony, K any consonant ). This structure can be but for the concrete realization of the case in the individual languages ​​a relatively large margin. The following table shows the Kasusmarkerformeln and their realizations in three sample languages ​​Kyrgyz, Bashkir and Turkish, the few - implement variants of the formula - but not all.

The Kasusmarkerformeln and their realization in some Turkic languages

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns are very similar in all Turkic languages ​​. In Turkish, they are:

Possessive suffixes

Particularly important are the possessive suffixes, which replace the possessive pronoun in the Turkic languages ​​, but are used in similar forms in the verbal morphology:

Noun phrases

Using the example of the Turkish construction of noun phrases is shown. The order of constituents is determined thereby. It represents mainly the following items:

1 attribute - noun 2 - 3 derivational suffix - 4 plural marker - 5 nominalization - 6 possessive suffixes - 7 Kasusmarker

Examples:

• Araba - lar - ımız -a >> 2 car - 4 PL - POSS.1pl 6 - 7 DAT

• çocuk - lar -ı ınız >> 2 kids - 4 PL - POSS.2pl 6 - 7 AKK

• Valid UES learn iniz -i >> 2 laugh - NOMINAL 3 - 4 PL - POSS.2pl 6 - 7 AKK

• Yaşlı adam- lar -a >> 1 old - 2 man - 4 PL - 7 DAT

• Birçok çocuk >> 1 lot 2 child

The verbal system of the Turkic languages

A typical verbal form has the following positions:

1 Pedigree - 2 Tempus-/Modus-Marker - 3 personal ending

The following table shows the modes and tenses of the verb in the Turkic languages ​​with general formula and implementation in Azerbaijan and Turkish ( 1 Sg from the root al - ' take, get, buy " )

Examples of more complex Turkish verbal forms that can replace all the subordinate clauses:

• Ben milyoner ol - mak isti - yor -um >> I [ Millionaire - be -INF ] want - PRES - 1sg

• Ben biz - haps in -e at- IL- ACAG - ımız -ı duy -du- m

• Kiss - REZIP - KAUS -PASS - PAST - 3pl öp -UES - door -ul - dü - ler >>

• Yika n -ma- Mali - Yim >> wash - REFL NEG necess - 1sg

• Yika n- ACAG - ım >> wash - REFL - FUT - 1sg

(Some examples by IEL, articles Turkish, and GLCampbell, Concise Compendium of the World 's Languages)

Early Turkic languages ​​and their tradition

Migration

Some scientists argue that already in the associations of the Huns, who migrated to the West since the 1st century, tribes were, spoke the early forms of a Turkic language. Massive migrations of Turkic peoples can be demonstrated beyond doubt since the 8th century. The peak of the migration of Turkish populations to the west was the conquest of Anatolia in the 12th and. 13th century. The last migration of Turkish population was that of the Yakuts, which began in the 12th century. The language of the Turks of South Siberia ( the language in which the oldest Turkic texts - the Orkhon inscriptions - were recorded, ie Old Turkish ) is the only form of language that has gained own profile before the great migrations of Turkic peoples.

Chronology

• The oldest written records are the Turkish runic inscriptions of the Orkhon - Yenisey region and the Turan inscriptions. These come mainly from the 8th century. The font in which the Orkhon texts have survived, has external similarities with the Germanic runes on ( but are not related to this ), so that it is called runes.

• The actual writing tradition of the southeastern Turkic begins in the 11th century under the Qarakhanid. There was in 1069 or 1070 arising from the 6645 single verses work Kutadgu Bilig ( " beatific wisdom " ) by the poet Yusuf and in 1074 the monumental Turkish- Arabic Dictionary Diwan Lughat at- Turk by Mahmud al - Kaschghari.

• The Khorezm - Turkish 13th and 14th century also belonged to the southeastern Turkic languages ​​, but shows some southwestern influences. It formed the basis of the Tschagataischen, an important literary language of many Muslim Turkic peoples to the late 19th century.

• The earliest evidence of north-western Turkic date from the 14th century, as in the Cuman language of the Codex Cumanicus was written. Successor languages ​​are Tatar and Bashkir.

• Inscriptions of Wolgabolgarischen are only from the 13th/14th century. Handed century, it - or from a related dialect - later developed the vastly different Chuvash.

• Since the 15th century, belonging to the South-East group Tschagataisch is busy, which is the basis for today's languages ​​Uzbek and Uighur.

The Verschriftung the Turkic languages

• The Verschriftung classical literature languages ​​Ottoman Turkish, Azerbaijani, Tschagataisch, Tatar and Crimean Tatar made ​​exclusively by the Arabic alphabet.

• In the period 1924-30 more Turkic languages ​​were transliterated, first on the basis of the Latin alphabet, which was used since 1922 for Azerbaijan.

• From 1936-40, the transition began in the Soviet sphere to the needs of the Turkic languages ​​adapted Cyrillic writing. Were created on mutual intelligibility of various Turkic languages ​​, the Arabic and Latin Verschriftlichungen, so was in the Cyrillic languages ​​verschriftlichten the opposite - there artificially separate languages ​​were generated from different dialects. Line loyalty Linguists were commissioned by Stalin to transform the regional or tribal dialects typical in high-level languages ​​and so teachable to smash old relationships. Especially the Turkic languages ​​in the USSR had as far as possible be moved apart, to destroy the old pan-Turkic aspirations.

• In October 1990, just before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it was decided by the states of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan on a Turkgipfel in Ankara, introduce Latin alphabets for their territory within 15 years. This should be closely based on the alphabet used in Turkey. Aim of this step should be the preservation of the cultural heritage of the Turkic peoples.

• Now Until the year 2007 the following Turkic states and territories inscribed with Turkish- Latin alphabets:

• Turkic-speaking Jews used since ancient times the Hebrew Scriptures.